Unit 9 Psych

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Pioneering memory researcher who studied relearning, retention, and forgetting(“retention” & “forgetting” curve)

Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin

Proposed three-stage model for memory (sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory)

George A. Miller

Proposed short-term memory capacity is 7+/-2

Eric Kandel

Studied the neural basis for memory & learning using sea slugs

Elizabeth Loftus

Studied memory reconstruction and the misinformation effect

Wolfgang Kohler

Studied insight learning in animals

Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman

Studied representativeness & availability heuristics

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (7+/-2), such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious , active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory (what you are currently “working” with in your mind)

Explicit memory

Retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory)

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Implicit memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed studying or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice (i.e. cramming)

Testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (i.e. daily quizzing)

Shallow processing

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Semantic memory

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)

Episodic memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is explicit memory)

Hippocampus

A neural center, located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage

Memory consolidation

The neural storage of long-term memory

Flashbulb memory

A clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Encoding specificity principle

The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past

Proactive interference

The forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information (old interferes with new)

Retroactive interference

The backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information (new interferes with old)

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Reconsolidation

A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Misinformation effect

Occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

Source amnesia

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (also called source misattribution); source amnesia, along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

Deja vu

That eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”; cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to prototypes provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

Creativity

The ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Convergent thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions’ creative thinking that diverges in different situations

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but more error-prone than an algorithm

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation

In cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

Mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Intuition

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Representativeness heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Belief perseverance

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments