Unit 9 Psych

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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68 Terms

1

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Pioneering memory researcher who studied relearning, retention, and forgetting(“retention” & “forgetting” curve)

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2

Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin

Proposed three-stage model for memory (sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory)

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3

George A. Miller

Proposed short-term memory capacity is 7+/-2

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4

Eric Kandel

Studied the neural basis for memory & learning using sea slugs

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5

Elizabeth Loftus

Studied memory reconstruction and the misinformation effect

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6

Wolfgang Kohler

Studied insight learning in animals

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7

Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman

Studied representativeness & availability heuristics

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8

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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9

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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10

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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11

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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12

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning

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13

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time

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14

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage

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15

Parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

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16

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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17

Short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (7+/-2), such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten

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18

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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19

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious , active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory (what you are currently “working” with in your mind)

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20

Explicit memory

Retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory)

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21

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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22

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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23

Implicit memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

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24

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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25

Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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26

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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27

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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28

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed studying or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice (i.e. cramming)

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29

Testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (i.e. daily quizzing)

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Shallow processing

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

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31

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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32

Semantic memory

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)

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33

Episodic memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is explicit memory)

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34

Hippocampus

A neural center, located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage

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35

Memory consolidation

The neural storage of long-term memory

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36

Flashbulb memory

A clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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37

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

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38

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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39

Encoding specificity principle

The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

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40

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

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41

Serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

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42

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories

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43

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past

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44

Proactive interference

The forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information (old interferes with new)

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45

Retroactive interference

The backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information (new interferes with old)

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46

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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47

Reconsolidation

A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

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48

Misinformation effect

Occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

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49

Source amnesia

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (also called source misattribution); source amnesia, along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

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50

Deja vu

That eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”; cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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51

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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52

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to prototypes provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

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54

Creativity

The ability to produce new and valuable ideas

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55

Convergent thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

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Divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions’ creative thinking that diverges in different situations

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57

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

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58

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but more error-prone than an algorithm

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59

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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60

Confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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61

Fixation

In cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

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62

Mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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63

Intuition

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

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64

Representativeness heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

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65

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

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66

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

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67

Belief perseverance

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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68

Framing

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments

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