Arguments based on observation

Teleological arguments

somethings purpose or goal or end point

a posteriori reasoning

reasoning that uses observation or experience to reach conclusions

What is aquinas fifth way ? - teleological

This arguments is called ‘from the governance of the world’

• he says that things that lack knowledge act for a purpose or end, this acting for an end leads to the best result.
• This must happen through design and not luck
• Anything that lack knowledge needs something with knowledge to guide it - like an arrow needs an archer to guide it to get to its goal (the bullseye)
• therefore there is an intelligent being that directs all natural things to their end
• this being is God

Problems with archer and arrow analogy

• an arrow and archer do not reflect God as an archer and an arrow are in direct contact.
• at best this analogy can only say there is a shared characteristic it does not help us understand the relationship with God.

What does Paley say about regularity in the world?

Paley observed that complex objects with regularity. The seasons of the year happen with order, planets and gravity. This order appears to be the work of a designer

What does Paley say about purpose in the world

• the eye for paley seems to be constructed deliberately with the purpose of seeing
• the wings of a bird have a direct purpose of aiding flying due to their intricacy.

For Paley this all points to a designer who is God. Paley used the science of his day to explain how their is small and large scales of design

What is Paley’s watch analogy

if we were to come across a rock in a feild we would be able to explain how it is there through nature. However if we came across an old fashioned pocket watch we would not think it came about through nature. We may believe it has a designer due to its complexities. Due to the world being so much more complex than a pocket watch we should conclude the world has a designer.

What is Aquinas first way? (the unmoved mover)

• everything is both in a state of actuality and potentiality
• all things are moved by something else - things cannot just move themselves
• this cannot go on to infinity because otherwise there would be no first mover
• so there must be a first mover and this is what everyone understands to be God

What is Aquinas second way? (the uncaused causer)

• nothing can be its own efficient cause (what brought something about) because it cannot have existed before itself
• things that causes must themselves be caused, otherwise the effect would be taken away.
• we cannot go back to infinity because that would mean there was no first cause of everything and so all later effects and causes wouldn’t have happened.
• therefore their must be a special case, a first efficient that is not caused its self.
• the first uncaused causer is what we call God

contingent being

something that relies on something else for its existence; it is possible that it does or does not exist

What is Aquinas third way? (contingency and necessity)

• in nature there are things that are possible to be and not to be (contingent beings)
• these things could not always have existed because they must not have at some point because they rely on something else for their existence
• if we traced this back there would be a time where nothing existed, but then nothing would have begun to exist as nothing can come from nothing.
• therefore, there must be a necessary being
• there must only be one necessary being as there cannot be a regress of necessary beings
• this is what people call God.

What are Humes criticisms of analogy in the teleological argument?

• it is not true that the world reflects a watch ‘‘the world plainly resembles more an animal or vegetable than it does a watch’’
• It may be true that a watch looks as if it is design, but it is harder to say that the world has these characteristics. Hume therefore is rejecting the idea that the analogy is suitable
• the world could be more similar to a vegetable that has characteristics of natural intricacy

How does Hume use the Epicurean hypothesis?

the epicurean hypothesis states that given infinite amount of time all the particles in the universe would combine in every possible combination. Eventually a stable environment like the one we live in would be created. Therefore, randomness can and does explain the universe

What criticisms does Hume make about the nature of God?

• our world is finite and imperfect; why should God be infinite and perfect - why couldn’t God be finite and/or imperfect.
• Hume uses the example of scales where one side is hidden: just because we know one side of the scales is heavier does not mean we know its weight.
• In the same way, just because we might be able to see evidence of a designer does not mean we know anything about there nature. This world could be in a series of trials (like a watch maker would have)
• the multiple creators argument - a house has multiple builders and people involved why shouldn’t there be multiple creators?

What criticisms does Hume make about the cosmological argument?

• Hume question the leap in logic made between what Aquinas observed and the God that Christians believe in
• Hume argued that we cannot make the jump from the idea that just because everything in the universe has a cause or reason to exist then the entire universe must have a cause or reason

examining Hume

• Just because we cannot fully understand the nature of God, why should the logic of all the arguments disappear
• modern science suggests that their is definitely a beginning to the universe
• we do need to have faith to make the final leap to understand God
• Just because we have no experience of something does not mean that our current understanding cannot explain it

What challenge does evolution present to arguments based on observation?

inheritance and reproduction - species reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation = this challenges the teleological argument as it places the emphasis not on the designer God, but on what is going on in the world

Mutation - As genes are passed on mutations occur in subsequent generations. These mutations change the characteristics of the species = changes in different species therefore do not happen because of a designer but naturally occurring mutations (chance)

survival of the fittest - when new characteristics emerge there will be two types of species around. Those most able to survive will and the rest will go extinct = The teleological argument claims a designer is what effects change. the survival of the fittest syas that it is nature competing against nature for survival that is what makes the change. Therefore, brutal nature is responsible for how we see the world around us not a designer .

what is a logical fallacy?

an error in logic

What is a logical fallacy in Aquinas second way?

the assumption that all things are moved or have a cause or are contingent or have a purpose can be argued to be a logical fallacy because it is an assumption

Why is infinite regress a logical fallacy?

the idea that infinite regress cannot happen is a logical fallacy because things can go back infinity for example numbers e.g -1 and -2

What is a logical fallacy in the cosmological arguments?

the cosmological arguments suggests that their must be a ‘special case’ for the unmoved mover, uncaused causer or necessary being. this assumption could be a logical fallacy because it is not clear why god has to be the special case