Music History Exam 2 study guide

Didjeridu and Aboriginal Song (Australia)

The Didjeridu, a key instrument in Aboriginal Australian music, is used in ceremonial rituals to evoke connection with the land, ancestors, and spirituality. Its deep drone, created through circular breathing, serves as a sonic representation of the natural world, symbolizing the continuity of life and cultural identity. In Aboriginal song, the Didjeridu is integral to oral traditions, passing down stories, laws, and spiritual knowledge across generations. It plays a significant role in community identity and belonging, linking individuals to their heritage and the broader concept of migrancy, as its sound reflects the movement of people and landscapes through time.

Musical Bows (Southern Africa)

The musical bow (bowstring or string bow, a subset of bar zithers) is a simple string instrument used by a number of African peoples as well as Indigenous peoples of the Americas. It consists of a flexible, usually wooden, stick, and strung end to end with a taut cord, usually metal.

Azmari and Masinqo (Ethiopia)

The Azmari and Masinqo are central to Ethiopian music, with the Azmari being a singer-poet who uses improvisation to tell stories, offer social commentary, and preserve history. The Masinqo, a one-stringed bowed instrument, accompanies the Azmari, creating a unique, emotive sound. Together, they form a dynamic duo, where the Azmari’s voice and the Masinqo’s melody communicate deep spiritual and cultural values. Their performances, often in public spaces, connect people to their past, identity, and community. This tradition highlights the role of music in ritual, storytelling, and social cohesion, while also adapting across regions, reflecting Ethiopian migration and cultural exchange.

Jeli Griots and Kora (Mali)

Jeli griots and the kora are vital to the musical heritage of Mali. The griot, a hereditary storyteller and musician, uses the kora, a 21-stringed harp-lute, to convey oral histories, genealogies, and social messages. The kora's rich, melodic sound enhances the griot’s role as a keeper of tradition, using music to reinforce community identity, honor ancestors, and celebrate major life events. The griot's performance, often in communal settings, strengthens social bonds and reflects the spiritual connection between music, identity, and the land. This tradition also adapts with migration, linking different African cultures through shared histories and storytelling.

Hindustani Instrumental Raga and Sitar/Sarod/Tambura (North India)

Hindustani instrumental raga, played on instruments like the sitar, sarod, and tambura, is central to classical music in North India. The raga, a melodic framework, expresses specific emotions and times of day, evoking spiritual and cultural connections. The sitar and sarod, with their complex, resonant tones, and the tambura’s continuous drone, create a deep, meditative atmosphere. These instruments, integral to both solo and ensemble performances, reflect the intricate relationship between music, identity, and ritual in Indian culture. Raga performances are often tied to devotional practices, highlighting music’s role in spiritual expression, cultural continuity, and communal life.

Gagaku Court Music and Koto (Japan)

Gagaku, the traditional court music of Japan, is performed using instruments like the koto, a plucked string instrument, alongside other wind and percussion instruments. The music, characterized by slow, meditative tempos and complex, layered textures, is deeply connected to ritual, spirituality, and the Japanese imperial court’s cultural identity. The koto’s elegant, resonant tones complement the formal structure of Gagaku, evoking harmony with nature and the divine. This tradition emphasizes continuity, with Gagaku serving as a means to connect the present with ancestral spirits and cultural history, while also embodying themes of social order and spiritual devotion within the community.

Arab Taqasim for Ud and Buzuq (Middle East)

Arab taqasim, an improvised instrumental solo, is a cornerstone of Middle Eastern music, often performed on instruments like the oud and buzuq. Taqasim showcases the musician's mastery over microtones and intricate ornamentation, expressing deep emotional and spiritual states. The oud, with its rich, warm tones, and the buzuq, with its bright, resonant sound, create a dynamic interplay in these improvised performances. Taqasim reflects the cultural importance of personal expression and storytelling, with each performance linking the musician to community, history, and identity. It also serves as a form of ritual, evoking both spiritual devotion and a sense of continuity within the broader Middle Eastern musical heritage.

Dastgah for Santur and Voice (Iran)

Dastgah, a system of modes in Persian classical music, is central to the musical tradition of Iran, often performed on the santur (a hammered dulcimer) and voice. The santur’s delicate, resonant tones, combined with the human voice, create a deeply expressive and meditative performance. Dastgah allows for intricate improvisation, reflecting a connection to both the spiritual and emotional realms. The music is closely tied to themes of identity, personal expression, and cultural heritage, with each performance serving as a means of storytelling and spiritual reflection. This tradition fosters communal bonds and preserves Iran’s rich cultural and musical history through its oral transmission.

Gamelan Gongs (Indonesia)

Gamelan, a traditional ensemble music from Indonesia, is primarily composed of gongs, metallophones, and drums, creating layered, interlocking rhythms. The gongs, with their deep, resonant tones, play a crucial role in shaping the structure of the music, while other instruments contribute to intricate patterns and textures. Gamelan music is deeply embedded in religious and cultural rituals, often performed during ceremonies, celebrations, and community events. It serves as a means of connecting with the divine, reinforcing social order, and expressing communal identity. Gamelan also embodies the fluidity of tradition, adapting across regions and reflecting the diversity of Indonesia's cultural landscape.

Gumboot Performance (South Africa)

Gumboot performance, originating from South African miners, is a vibrant form of expressive dance and music. Performers create rhythmic beats by slapping their boots, clapping, and stamping, often in synchronized movements, which reflects the resilience and solidarity of the miners. This performance, with its roots in resistance and survival, combines elements of oral tradition, storytelling, and communal identity. It symbolizes a connection to heritage and struggles for freedom, while also acting as a form of creative expression and social cohesion. Gumboot dance continues to evolve, reflecting South Africa's diverse cultural landscape and history of migration, resistance, and unity.

Animism

The belief that all natural objects and phenomena, including animals, plants, and inanimate objects, possess a spirit or soul, often seen in indigenous cultures.

Totemism

A belief system where a group or individual is spiritually connected to a particular animal, plant, or object, often seen as an ancestor or protector.

Didjeridu

A traditional Australian Aboriginal wind instrument made from a hollowed tree branch, producing a deep, resonant drone through circular breathing, used in ceremonies and storytelling.

Corroboree

A ceremonial gathering in Australian Aboriginal cultures involving music, dance, and ritual, often used to celebrate, communicate, or honor spirits.

Wondjina

Spirits or ancestral beings in Aboriginal mythology, often depicted as cloud-like figures or ancestral beings in rock art, associated with creation and the land.

Uhadi

A Southern African musical bow, typically used for both melodic and rhythmic purposes, often accompanied by singing and storytelling.

Idiophone

A category of musical instruments that produce sound primarily through vibration of the instrument itself, without needing strings or membranes, like gongs or bells.

• Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: A historical Christian kingdom in Ethiopia that dates back to the 4th century, with a strong tradition of Orthodox Christianity and sacred music.

• Melekket: A system of musical notation in Ethiopia used for recording and preserving the complex vocal and instrumental music of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

• Notational System: The method by which music is visually represented through symbols or text, aiding in the preservation and transmission of musical traditions.

• Jeliya: The tradition of griot musicians in West Africa, specifically in Mali, who use music and storytelling to preserve oral history and genealogy.

• Birimintingo/Kumbengo: Two styles of playing the kora in West African music; birimintingo is a fast, ornamented style, and kumbengo is a repetitive, foundational rhythm.

• Azmari Tradition: A tradition in Ethiopia where an Azmari, or wandering poet-musician, improvises songs accompanied by instruments like the masinqo, often performing social commentary and storytelling.

• Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity: A branch of Christianity practiced in Ethiopia, characterized by unique rituals, music, and religious practices, deeply intertwined with the country’s culture and history.

• Ethiopian Liturgical Sacred Music: Religious music in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, often performed in Ge'ez, featuring complex vocal harmonies and traditional instruments like the krar and the beganna.

• Krar: A traditional Ethiopian stringed instrument similar to a lyre, often used in both secular and sacred music to accompany singing in religious and social contexts.

• Beganna: A large, ancient Ethiopian stringed instrument, similar to a harp, traditionally used in religious music and cultural ceremonies.

• Shillela Song Genre: A genre of Ethiopian song characterized by its rhythmic, repetitive structure, often performed during festivals or social gatherings.

• Griot/Griotte: A hereditary West African musician, storyteller, and historian who preserves oral traditions and genealogies, often performing with instruments like the kora or balafon.

• Kora: A 21-stringed harp-lute from West Africa, played by griots to accompany storytelling, preserve history, and perform songs of praise and social commentary.

• Balafon: A West African wooden percussion instrument, similar to a xylophone, used in griot music for rhythmic accompaniment and storytelling.

• Ngoni: A traditional West African stringed instrument, similar to a lute, often used by griots for storytelling and ceremonial purposes.

• Raga: A melodic framework in Indian classical music, representing specific emotions, times of day, or seasons, often used as the basis for improvisation.

• Alap/Alapana: The introductory, unmetered section of a raga performance, where the musician explores the raga's mood and tone without rhythm, often on instruments like the sitar or sarod.

• Tala: A system of rhythmic cycles in Indian classical music, forming the foundation for compositions and improvisations, providing structure to a performance.

• Tambura: A long-necked stringed instrument in Indian classical music that provides a continuous drone, supporting the melody and creating harmonic richness.

• Sruti Box: A drone instrument used in Indian classical music, typically played to accompany singers or instrumentalists, maintaining the pitch and tonal foundation.

• Gagaku Court Music: The ancient court music of Japan, performed with wind, string, and percussion instruments, reflecting ceremonial, spiritual, and cultural aspects of Japanese aristocracy.

• Confucian Ideals: Philosophical principles from Confucianism, emphasizing harmony, respect for tradition, and the importance of music in moral development and societal order.

• Sankyoku: A genre of Japanese chamber music for three instruments (usually koto, shamisen, and shakuhachi) that blends lyrical expression with intricate melodic and rhythmic patterns.

• Biwa: A traditional Japanese stringed instrument, similar to a lute, used in storytelling and performing narrative music, often associated with the Heike Monogatari.

• Caste System: A social stratification system in India, historically linked to Hinduism, where individuals are born into specific social groups or castes, each with its own duties and responsibilities.

• Jhala: A fast-paced, rhythmic section in Indian classical music, typically performed on the sitar or sarod, marked by rapid plucking and a heightened sense of intensity.

• Sitar: A plucked string instrument from India, widely used in Hindustani classical music, known for its deep, resonant tones and ability to express intricate raga patterns.

• Drone Strings: Strings on Indian instruments like the sitar or tambura that continuously produce a drone sound, providing a harmonic foundation for the melody.

• Koto: A traditional Japanese plucked string instrument, often used in Gagaku and other forms of Japanese music, known for its delicate and resonant tones.

• Ryuteki: A bamboo flute used in Japanese Gagaku court music, characterized by its soft, ethereal sound, representing the voice of nature in the performance.

• Jeli: A West African griot, or storyteller-musician, who preserves oral histories and genealogies through music and performance, often accompanied by instruments like the kora.

• Ardin: A traditional stringed instrument from Ethiopia, played similarly to a lyre, and used in both secular and sacred music.

• Tabla: A pair of hand-played drums used in Indian classical music, providing intricate rhythmic accompaniment to raga performances.

• Hinduism: The major religion of India, with a deep connection to music, where devotional and classical music serve to express spiritual devotion, cosmic harmony, and cultural identity.

• Gat: A fixed composition in Indian classical music, typically played after the alap section, often in a fast tempo and accompanied by rhythmic patterns (tala).

• Heterophonic Structure: A musical texture in which multiple performers play variations of the same melody simultaneously, often found in Middle Eastern and African music.

• Taqasim: A solo, improvisational instrumental performance in Arabic music, where the musician explores a maqam (musical mode) without a fixed rhythm, showcasing technical skill and emotional depth.

• Dastgah: A system of modes in Persian classical music, with each dastgah consisting of a set of melodies that express specific emotions, often used for improvisation.

• Gusheh: A small, melodic fragment or theme within a dastgah in Persian classical music, used as a building block for improvisation.

• Ud/Oud: A short-necked, pear-shaped stringed instrument from the Middle East, with a rich, warm tone, commonly used in Arabic, Turkish, and Persian music.

• Radif: A collection of traditional Persian melodies, organized into dastgahs, that serve as the basis for learning and performing Persian classical music.

• Santur: A hammered dulcimer from Persia (Iran), played by striking strings with mallets, commonly used in classical music and known for its delicate, resonant tones.

• Buzuq: A long-necked stringed instrument from the Middle East, similar to a lute, used in Arabic and Turkish music, known for its bright, resonant sound.

• ‘Non-Music’: A term used to describe sounds that do not conform to traditional musical structures, often reflecting noise, environmental sounds, or experimental art.

• Masinqo: A one-stringed bowed instrument from Ethiopia, used in both secular and sacred music, often accompanied by singing and integral to Ethiopian folk and spiritual music traditions.

• Umrhubhe: A traditional Zulu musical bow, played by plucking or striking the string, often used in storytelling and healing ceremonies.

• Zulu Harmonics: The use of overtone singing or harmonic intervals in Zulu music, adding a layered, resonant quality to vocal performances.

• Xhosa Chordophone: A stringed instrument from the Xhosa people of South Africa, typically used in storytelling, social gatherings, and rituals.

• Khoisan: Indigenous people of Southern Africa, known for their click languages and distinctive music traditions that often feature vocalizations and percussive instruments.

• Abyssinia: An ancient name for Ethiopia, often referring to its long history and rich cultural and musical heritage.

• Ge’ez: An ancient Ethiopian script and liturgical language used in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, integral to its sacred music and religious texts.

• St. Yārēd: An influential Ethiopian church composer and saint, credited with systematizing Ethiopian liturgical music and its notation.

• Tezetā: A major mode in Ethiopian music, often associated with sadness or longing, used in both vocal and instrumental performances.

• Zen Buddhism: A school of Mahayana Buddhism that emphasizes meditation, simplicity, and harmony, with music playing a role in spiritual practice, especially in Japanese culture.

• Taiko Drum Ensemble: A traditional Japanese drum ensemble that emphasizes powerful, synchronized rhythms and is often used in festivals and ceremonies.

• Shakuhachi: A Japanese bamboo flute used in Zen Buddhist meditation and Gagaku court music, known for its soulful, breathy tones.

• Hichiriki: A double-reed wind instrument used in Japanese Gagaku court music, known for its distinctive, piercing tone.

• ‘Wax and Gold’: A concept in Ethiopian philosophy and literature, where "wax" refers to external appearance, and "gold" represents deeper, hidden meaning.

• Baya Drum: A traditional drum from North Africa, typically used in Arabic music, known for its deep, resonant sound.

• Sympathetic Strings: Strings that resonate along with the main strings of an instrument, like the sitar, adding depth and richness to the sound.

• Rasa: The emotional essence or mood evoked by a raga in Indian classical music, believed to connect the performer and listener with the divine.

• Sarod: A fretless stringed instrument from India, known for its deep, rich sound, often used in Hindustani classical music.

• Shamisen: A Japanese three-stringed instrument, played with a plectrum, often used in traditional theater and folk music.

• Sho: A traditional Japanese mouth organ used in Gagaku, known for its harmonic, meditative sound that represents the harmony of the universe.

• Maqam: A system of musical modes used in Arab and Persian music, similar to raga, that defines the pitch structure and emotional character of a piece.

• Islam: The religion based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, with music playing a key role in spiritual devotion, particularly in Sufi practices.

• Dreamtime/The Dreaming: Aboriginal Australian concept of the creation period, where ancestral beings shaped the world, deeply connected to music, rituals, and storytelling.

• Musical Bow: A traditional stringed instrument in many African cultures, played by plucking or striking the string, often used in storytelling and rituals.

• Umakheweyana: A type of musical bow from Southern Africa, used in traditional storytelling and ceremonies.

• Gourd Resonator: A resonating chamber, typically made from a gourd, used in various African and Asian musical instruments, amplifying sound and enriching tonal quality.

• Aboriginal Cosmology: The spiritual beliefs and worldview of Aboriginal Australians, focusing on the Dreamtime and the interconnectedness of all life, expressed through music, ritual, and storytelling.

• Koranic Chant: A melodic recitation of the Quran, typically sung or chanted in a highly stylized manner, adhering to specific tonal and rhythmic patterns, integral to Islamic worship.

• Adhan (Call to Prayer): The Islamic call to prayer, announced from a mosque's minaret, using a melodic chant to signal the time for prayer, inviting the community to worship.

• Call-and-Response Style: A musical structure where a leader sings or plays a phrase, and the group responds, often used in African, African American, and religious music for communal participation and interaction.

• Gumboot Performance: A rhythmic dance and music style originating from South African miners, involving stamping, clapping, and slapping rubber boots to create complex rhythmic patterns, often used for social commentary.

• Timbral Density: The richness or thickness of the sound in music, created by the number and complexity of tones produced, often in relation to texture and harmony.

• African American Steppin’: A synchronized, percussive dance style originating in African American communities, involving rhythmic foot movements and body percussion, often used in social and competitive settings.

• Gamelan: A traditional Indonesian ensemble of percussion instruments, primarily gongs, metallophones, and drums, creating layered rhythms and used in cultural and religious ceremonies.

• Eulogy Chants: Vocal performances or songs, often in African or African American traditions, sung at funerals or memorials to honor the deceased and convey respect and mourning.

• Apartheid: A policy of racial segregation and discrimination enforced in South Africa from 1948 to 1994, influencing music and art as expressions of resistance and calls for freedom.

• Bhaca Tradition: The musical traditions of the Bhaca people of South Africa,

  characterized by polyphonic choral singing, drumming, and dancing, often associated with ritual and social life.

• Onomatopoeic Sounds: Sounds that imitate the natural sound associated with the object or action they represent, often used in music and performance to enhance expressiveness or narrative.

• Fanakalo: A pidgin language spoken in Southern Africa, combining elements of English, Dutch, and African languages, often used in the context of work and social interaction, influencing regional music styles.

• Colotomic Structure: A musical structure where time is divided into cycles, with specific instruments marking key points in the cycle, common in gamelan music and Southeast Asian traditions.

• Maskanda: A genre of South African music combining indigenous, Western, and African influences, featuring guitar and distinctive rhythms, often associated with Zulu culture and storytelling.

• Freedom Song: Songs sung during social movements, particularly in South Africa, to express resistance, unity, and hope, often performed in response to political oppression or injustice.

• Migrancy: The movement of people, often due to economic, social, or political reasons, influencing cultural exchange, music, and identity as migrant communities adapt and preserve their traditions.

Didjeridu and Aboriginal Song (Australia)

Azmari and Masinqo (Ethiopia)

Hindustani Instrumental Raga and Sitar/Sarod/Tambura (North India)

Musical Bows (Southern Africa)

Jeli Griots and Kora (Mali)

Gagaku Court Music and Koto (Japan)

Arab Taqasim for Ud and Buzuq (Middle East)

Dastgah for Santur and Voice (Iran)

Gumboot Performance (South Africa)

Gamelan Gongs (Indonesia)