Psychology of Personality - Test 4

Typology

Physical differences (BIOLOGY) causes differences in behavior (PERSONALITY)

Biological underpinnings of personality

Trait Theories

individuals differ from one another by a set of stable personality traits defining who they are by the strength of those traits

3 Assumptions made by Trait Theory

1. Everyone has traits

2. The goal is to discover which traits exist

3. The goal of personality is to measure traits (on a scale)

Cattells 16 Primary Personality Factors

trait test that uses quantitative factor analysis (where do you fall on a scale of traits)

How does trait approach differ from other approaches?

1. It predicts how people typically behave (not in a given situation)

2. It’s focus is on describing personality and predicting behavior (not explaining behavior)

3. Theorists are not therapists, they’re academic researchers (not focused on change)

Trait

relative enduring personality characteristic that has a fairly generalized effect on behavior

3 basic qualities of a trait

1. Long lasting

2. Affects behavior of individual

3. Affects behavior in diverse situations

Traits are not states

States are the psychological reaction to a situation which an individual finds themselves in (ex = anxiety)

2 major points of trait theories

1. Stability = traits are stable over long periods of time

2. Individual differences = different individuals have different traits (we have different amounts of each trait)

Similarities among all Trait theories

1. They distinguish between superficial (what you like/don’t like) and basic traits

2. They see traits as stable across situations, although sometimes they’re not shown

3. Their main emphasis is to develop reliable ways to measure disposition and they pay less attention to environmental variables

4. They infer traits from behavior and sometimes from other people’s reports

5. They concentrate on a quantitative methodology (scientific perspective)

Similarities between Typologies and Trait Theories

They both categorize/classify individuals

Differences between Typologies and Trait Theories

1. Typologies assume discontinuous categories (this or that). Trait theories use continuous scales.

2. Typologies are simple. Trait theories are complex.

3. Typologies use qualitative measures. Trait theories use quantitative measures.

Differences between Types and Traits

1. Types are simple. Traits are complex.

2. Types are qualitative. Traits are quantitative.

3. Types are discontinuous. (this or that) Traits are continuous. (scale)

Examples of Typologies

Myers-Briggs, Somatotypes

Trait Theorists

Gordon Allport and Raymond Cattell

Differences between Allport and Cattell

1. Allport believes traits have real existence. Cattell believes traits are inferred from behavior.

2. Allport’s categories of traits = cardinal, central, and secondary. Cattells categories of traits = source, surface, dynamic

3. Allport studied individuals in depth. Cattell studied groups.

4. Allport was critical of statistical approach. Cattell’s used the statistical approach to determine traits

Allport’s 3 categories of traits

1. Cardinal traits = dominate whole life and person becomes known for trait (may or may not be possessed). EX: narcissist, machiavellian

2. Central traits = general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality. EX: intelligent, honest, shy

3. Secondary traits = traits that only appear in certain situations or under specific circumstances. EX: getting anxious when speaking in front of a group

Allports goal

to determine how many and of which traits we have

determined there are 4,500 traits

Strengths and weaknesses of Allport’s traits

Strength: comprehensive

Weakness: impractical for research

Allports Proprium

Proprium = the core of the self. Refers to a persons sense of self and how that awareness contributes to lifelong personality development.

it does not DO, it simply is!

7 Stages of the Proprium

1. Bodily self

2. Self-identity

3. Self-esteem

4. Extension of self

5. Self-image

6. Self as a rational

7. Propriate striving adulthood

Allport believes what bond is crucial for security and affection?

The infant-mother bond

What does Allport believe happens when our needs are met and not met?

Met: We move towards becoming a healthy functioning individual

Not met: Our growth is stunted

What is maturity to Allport?

Strong mental health which contains:

1. Warm relating to others

2. Emotional security

3. Realistic perception

4. Extensions of self (social involvement)

What does Allport believe traits are?

A way of expressing proprium and interacting with the world/others

Allports Functional Autonomy

autonomous people can make decisions without influence or direction from others (healthiest state of being)

EX: setting boundaries in a relationship to protect your values

Allports 2 motivations + which is most important?

1. Opportunistic functioning/reactive functioning = the tendency to satisfy biological needs (biological and past oriented)

2. Propriate functioning/proactive functioning = functioning in a manner to express the self (psychological and future oriented) MOST IMPORTANT!

How did Allport reject Freuds theory?

1. Psychologically healthy people are motivated by present, mostly conscious drives that foster change and growth

2. We not only react to environment, we also shape it

Personality

tells what a person will do when placed in a given situation

Cattells Behavioral Specification Equation

R * f (sP)

R = response

f = function

s = situation

P = person

Response is a function of the situation and the person (person is more important)

How did Cattell change the search for traits

He used FACTOR ANALYSIS to trim down Allport’s 4,500 traits to 16 traits

Factor Analysis + how did Cattell use it?

statistical method that finds relationships among many diverse/different items (correlation)

Cattell used it to attempt to determine whether one psychological trait is related to or independent from another trait

EX: aspiration, determination, endurance, persistance, and productivity are all grouped together but are not correlated to compassion, cooperativeness, friendliness, kindliness, tenderness

Cattells Kinds of Traits

1. Surface traits = variables that are intercorrelated and cluster together (ex: aspiration, determination, endurance)

2. Source traits = underlying factor that controls variations in the surface cluster of traits

3. Dynamic traits = relate to motivation and goals that are important to the person

Cattells Motivational Systems

1. Attitudes = specific tendencies and actions in response to a specific situation

2. Sentiments = environmentally molded traits learned

3. Ergs = instinctual, hereditary motives (ex: sex, hunger)

Cattells Subsidation chain

We do things (attitude) because of some learned (sentiment) but also instinct (erg)

EX: Attitude = voting for a stronger system of national defense

Sentiment = patriotism and love of country

Erg = security

Cattells Pathology

Comes from 2 sources

1. Imbalance of normal function = factor on either extreme (EX: extremely extroverted = bipolar OR extremely introverted = schizophrenia)

2. Pathological traits as seperate factors = other than 16 primary factors there are additional abnormal factors (EX: depressive factors)

2 Controversies among Trait Theorists

1. Person-situation controversy = behaviorists believe situation is more important than person

   B = f(s) or B = f(P)

   Solution is B = f(sP)

   Behavior is more likely predicted by personality traits when the situation is weak. Behavior is more likely predicted by situation when situation is strong.

2. Do traits accurately predict behavior?

   Solution is aggregation = averaging of traits across situations and conditions under which predictions are made. Combining multiple observations is more accurate than basing prediction off 1 situation.

Structure, process, growth/development, pathology, change

Structure = traits

Process = dynamic traits (cattell)/propriate striving (allport)

Growth/development = hereditary + environment

Pathology = extreme scores on trait dimensions (Cattell)

Change = none

Strengths of trait approach

1. detects stable overall trends and differences

2. objective measurement, quantifications, development of tests

Weaknesses of trait approach

1. underestimates the role of situations

2. does not generate treatments, not concerned with personality change

Trait Approach vs Psychodynamic Approach

Assessment

Trait: 1. Limited response

2. Non-disguised

3. Objective (subjective)

4. Academic emphasis

Psychodynamic: 1. Open-ended

2. Disguised

3. Subjective

4. Clinical emphasis

Assessments

1. 16pf

2. Big Five = openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (OCEAN)

Phineas Gage + Doctor John Harlow

After suffering major brain damage, Phineas Gage underwent a huge personality change

1st case to link brain trauma and personality change

Heritability + formula

the amount of variance that can be accounted for by genetics

EX: if variance for extraversion is .5, 50% of extraversion depends on genetics

2 (Rmz - Rdz)

EX: if height is .93 for MZ twins and .48 for DZ twins, 2 (.93 - .48) = 0.90, 90% heritable and 10% environmental

Behavioral Genetics

Science that determines the degree to which individual differences in personality are caused by genetic and environmental differences

Controversial bc the hope in change is lessened if differences are genetic

4 Methods of Behavioral Genetics

(testing heritability’s validity in personality)

1. Selective breeding (ex:dogs)

2. Family Studies = correlate degree of genetic relatedness among family members (more related as genetic relatedness increases) PROBLEM = families share same environment

3. Twin Study = genetic relatedness of twins (if MZ and DZ have larger differences, there is more heritability validity) PROBLEM = studies assume environments of MZ and DZ are equally similar but environments of MZ could be more similar

4. Adoption Studies = adopted child-adopted parents strong correlation = evidence for environment

   adopted child-genetic parents strong correlation = evidence for genetics

   MOST POWERFUL!

Temperament

an individuals inherent behavioral style

2 main points about temperament

1. Temperament is inborn

2. Temperament is the basis for the development of traits

How is temperament related to environment?

1. Temperament creates environment = we seek out environments that are compatible with our temperament

2. People react to us on the basis of our temperament

   TEMPERAMENT INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCES THE WAY TEMPERAMENT DEVELOPS TRAITS

Thomas and Chess

studied temperament by following children from birth to adolescence using parental reports to different situations. emphasized effect of nature because studied so young (2-3 months old)

found 3 temperaments:

1. difficult = slow to adjust, react negatively/intensely

2. easy = adjust well, cheerful

3. slow-to-warm-up = difficult at first but becomes easier overtime

“goodness of fit”:

harmony of temperament + environment = good fit

dissonance of temperament + environment = bad fit

What have longitudinal studies revealed about temperament?

1. Stable differences emerge very early in life

2. Stability of temperament increases with maturity

Buss and Plomin

found MZ twins have closer similarities of temperament than DZ twins

proved temperament has a genetic basis

Jerome Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition

a temperament that relates tendency to feel distress or fear when faced with new experiences or people

What did Jerome Kagan find regarding behavioral inhibition?

infants inherit differences lead them to be more/less reactive

behavioral inhibition is linked to social anxiety, depression, and phobias

Jerome Kagan’s Study

observed children’s reactions to new and familiar stimuli in a laboratory setting + found 2 temperaments: inhibited and uninhibited.

3 Q’s: 1. How early do temperaments emerge? 3 months

2. How stable are differences overtime? Stable at least until 8 years of age

3. Is there a biological basis for difference in temperaments? Yes (heart rate/blood pressure changes)

Cerebral Asymetry

there are different levels of activity in the left and right hemispheres of the brain (innate)

more right hemisphere brain activity = associated with negative moods (linked to depression, anxiety)

more left hemisphere brain activity = associated with positive moods