Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering cognition, stages of development, problem solving, sleep, consciousness-altering drugs, and language acquisition based on the lecture notes.

Cognition

How our brains process and react to the information overload presented to us by the world.

Dual-Coding Theory

States that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information, building redundancy and increasing retrieval efficiency.

Information Processing Model

A model suggesting the brain handles emotions, sensations, and memories through four pillars: sensation/encoding, stimuli analysis, simulation modification, and problem-solving context.

Cognitive Development

The development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across a lifespan.

Jean Piaget

Psychologist who insisted on qualitative differences between child and adult thinking, dividing the lifespan into four stages of cognitive development.

Schema

A concept, behavior, or a sequence of events used to organize information.

Adaptation

The process by which new information is processed, consisting of assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

The process of classifying new information into existing schemata.

Accommodation

The modification of existing schemata to encompass new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage of development (birth to 2 years) characterized by manipulation of the environment to meet physical needs.

Primary Circular Reactions

Repetition of body movements that originally occurred by chance.

Secondary Circular Reactions

Repetition of movements focused on something outside of the body, such as throwing a toy.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view; its acquisition marks the end of the sensorimotor stage.

Representational Thought

The creation of mental representations of external objects and events.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage (2-7 years) characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.

Symbolic Thinking

The ability to pretend, play, make-believe, and use imagination.

Egocentrism

The inability to imagine what another person may think or feel.

Centration

The tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon or the inability to understand conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage (7-11 years) where children can understand conservation, consider others' perspectives, and engage in logical thought with concrete objects.

Formal Operational Stage

The final stage (starting at 11 years) marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas and engage in problem solving.

Pendulum Experiment

An experiment where adolescents demonstrated formal operational thought by holding variables constant to measure frequency, unlike younger children.

Lev Vygotsky

Proposed that cognitive development is driven by the child’s internalization of his or her culture.

Fluid Intelligence

Problem-solving skills which peak in early adulthood.

Crystallized Intelligence

The use of learned skills and knowledge which peaks in middle adulthood.

Dementia

Intellectual decline beginning with impaired memory and progressing to impaired judgment, confusion, and personality changes.

Vascular Dementia

A type of dementia caused by high blood pressure resulting in mini-clots in the brain.

Delirium

A rapid, reversible fluctuation in cognitive function caused by medical conditions like electrolyte disturbances or infection.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach similar problems in the same way.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner.

Trial and Error

A less sophisticated problem-solving method where various solutions are tried until one works.

Algorithms

A formula or set of instructions designed to automatically produce a solution for a specific problem.

Deductive (Top-down) Reasoning

Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the provided information.

Inductive (Bottom-up) Reasoning

Starts with specific instances and draws generalizations to create a theory.

Heuristics

Simplified principles or "rules of thumb" used to make decisions.

Availability Heuristic

Deciding how likely something is based on how easily similar instances can be imagined.

Representativeness Heuristic

Categorizing items based on whether they fit a prototypical or stereotypical image.

Base Rate Fallacy

Using prototypical factors while ignoring numerical information.

Disconfirmation Principle

The rule that a potential solution should be discarded if it fails during testing.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to focus on information that fits existing beliefs while rejecting contradictory information.

Belief Perseverance

The inability to reject a particular belief even when presented with clear evidence to the contrary.

Recognition-Primed Decision Model

A model where the brain matches patterns based on experience to make decisions automatically.

Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner's theory specifying seven types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

g factor

Spearman's general intelligence factor, an underlying variable playing a role in performance across different cognitive tasks.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A standardized measure of intelligence calculated as $\text{IQ} = \frac{\text{mental age}}{\text{chronological age}} \times 100$.

Alertness

A state of consciousness where we are awake, able to think, and maintain higher cortisol levels.

Reticular Formation

A brainstem structure that communicates with the prefrontal cortex to maintain alertness.

Beta Waves

High frequency EEG waves occurring when a person is alert or concentrating on a mental task.

Alpha Waves

Slower, more synchronized EEG waves occurring when a person is awake but relaxing with eyes closed.

Theta Waves

Irregular, higher voltage waves characterizing Sleep Stage 1 and Stage 2.

Sleep Spindles

Short bursts of brain activity that occur along with K complexes during Sleep Stage 2.

Delta Waves

Low frequency, high voltage waves characteristic of Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep.

Slow Wave Sleep (SWS)

Stages 3 and 4 of sleep, associated with cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, and growth hormone release.

Paradoxical Sleep

Another name for REM sleep because heart rate, breathing, and EEG mimic wakefulness while the person is asleep and paralyzed.

Circadian Rhythms

Internally generated 24-hour cycles that regulate waking and sleeping, affected by light.

Melatonin

A serotonin-derived hormone from the pineal gland that contributes to sleepiness.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

The theory that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry stitched together by the cortex.

Dyssomnias

Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep, such as insomnia and narcolepsy.

Parasomnias

Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep, such as night terrors and sleepwalking.

Cataplexy

A loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, often triggered by emotion.

Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Hallucinations

Hallucinations that occur when going to sleep or waking up, respectively.

Sleep Apnea

Inability to breathe during sleep, classified as either obstructive (physical blockage) or central (brain failure to signal diaphragm).

Alcohol Myopia

A short-sighted view of the world resulting from high doses of alcohol.

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

A brain disorder caused by thiamine deficiency, characterized by memory impairment and loss of motor skills.

Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines

Drugs that increase GABA activity to reduce anxiety and induce relaxation; highly addictive.

Amphetamines

Stimulants that increase the release and decrease the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.

Opiates and Opioids

Compunds such as morphine and oxycodone that bind to receptors to decrease pain and produce euphoria; overdose can cause respiratory suppression.

Mesolimbic Reward Pathway

Dopaminergic pathway involving the nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), and medial forebrain bundle (MFB), linked to addiction.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli.

Cocktail Party Phenomenon

The ability to perceive your own name being mentioned while in a deep conversation with someone else.

Phonology

The actual sound of language, consisting of about 40 phonemes in English.

Categorical Perception

The ability to distinguish whether speech sounds represent a change in meaning.

Morphology

The structure of words, composed of building blocks called morphemes.

Semantics

The association of meaning with a word.

Syntax

The rules governing how words are put together to form sentences.

Pragmatics

The dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge, often affected by prosody.

Nativist Theory

The biological theory by Noam Chomsky stating there is an innate capacity for language via a Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

Whorfian Hypothesis

Also called Linguistic Relativity, it suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of our language.

Broca’s Area

Located in the inferior frontal gyrus, it controls the motor function of speech.

Wernicke’s Area

Located in the superior temporal gyrus, it is responsible for language comprehension.

Arcuate Fasciculus

A bundle of axons connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas to associate comprehension with speech production.