Physiology Lab Fitness/Respiration

pneumothorax

collapsed lung

pneumothorax causes

Air leaks into the space between the lung and chest wall (pleural space); this air pushes on the outside of the lung, making it collapse partially or fully.

Can be caused by

- a blunt or penetrating chest injury

- certain medical procedures

- ruptured air blisters

- mechanical ventilation

- damage from underlying lung disease.

pneumothorax symptoms

Sudden chest pain

Shortness of breath

pneumothorax risk factors

Smoking

Genetics

Previous pneumothorax

Underlying lung disease

Mechanical ventilation

Male

20-40 years old (if caused by a rupture air blister)

pneumothorax treatments

Relieve pressure on lung:

- Observation

- Needle aspiration

- Chest tube insertion

- Surgery

rhabdomyolysis

It happens when muscle fibers die and release their contents into your bloodstream. This can lead to serious complications such as renal (kidney) failure.

rhabdomyolysis causes

direct or indirect injury:

severe burn

high intensity exercise

severe dehydration

overheating

rhabdomyolysis symptoms

- Muscle pain in the shoulders, thighs, or lower back

- Muscle weakness or trouble moving arms and legs

- Dark red or brown urine or decreased urination

rhabdomyolysis risk factors

Doing high intensity activities

working in hot environments

rhabdomyolysis treatments

surgery: fasciotomy

IV fluids

dialysis

pleural effusion

Having an excess amount of fluids in the pleura

pleural effusion causes

The body is producing too much fluid in the pleura that is not being absorbed, this fluid has the function of a lubricant to be able to allow lungs to move when breathing.

pleural effusion symptoms

Chest pain

Orthopnea: inability to breathe unless standing or sitting up straight

Dyspnea: shortness of breath

pleural effusion risk factors

Tobacco use

Exposure to asbestos

pleural effusion treatments

Thoracotomy

Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery

medication: diuretics, heart failure medication, antibiotics, radiation therapy

compartment syndrome

a painful buildup of pressure around your muscles which restricts the flow of blood, fresh oxygen and nutrients to your muscles and nerves

compartment syndrome causes

happens when an injury or repeated stress causes swelling and bleeding inside a muscle compartment. If the pressure builds too much, your muscles press against the fascia that holds them in place, squeezing your muscles

compartment syndrome symptoms

Visible bulging or swelling around a muscle.

Severe muscle pain

Tightness

Numbness.

Tingling or a burning feeling under your skin (paresthesia).

compartment syndrome risk factors

Having a blood disorder (hemophilia)

Having a physically demanding job

Being an athlete

Repetitive training/overtraining

compartment syndrome treatments

surgery: fasciotomy

skin graft

anti-inflammatory medications

physical therapy

conducting zone structures and pathway

trachea, primary bronchus, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioleslarynx->trachea->bronchi

conducting zone function

filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs

left lung

2 lobes: superior and inferior

right lung

3 lobes (superior, middle, inferior)

what are alveoli

tiny sacs at end of bronchioles where gas exchange occurs

what is the respiratory zone

site of gas exchange, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli sacs, alveoli

macrophage in alveolus serves to

patrol alveoli; remove pathogens or debris that enter respiratory zone

O2 from alveoli secreted to

blood capillary

CO2 from blood capillary secreted to

alveolus to be removed from the lungs (expired)

Surfactant on alveoli

lowers surface tension, which keeps the alveoli from collapsing after exhalation and makes breathing easy

type I alveolar cell

squamous epithelial cells that are the major cell type in the alveolar wall; highly permeable to gases

type II alveolar cell

cuboidal epithelial cells that are the minor cell type in the alveolar wall; secrete pulmonary surfactant

muscles of normal inspiration

diaphragm and external intercostals

- contract to increase volume of lungs/expand thoracic wall

muscles of normal expiration

- diaphragm ( relaxes = raises) --> decrease thoracic volume inferiorly

- external intercostals (relax) --> depress the rib cage

muscles of forced inspiration

diaphragm, external intercostals, sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, parasternal intercostals, pectoralis minor

- expand lung capacity beyond normal

muscles of forced expiration

internal intercostals and abdominal muscles (external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal oblique, transversus abdominus, rectus abdominus)

- force air out

respiratory pressures: at rest

atmospheric: 760 mmHg

intrapulmonary pressure: 760 mmHg

intrapleural pressure: 756 mmHg

respiratory pressures: inspiration

atmospheric: 760 mmHg

intrapulmonary pressure: 757 mmHg

intrapleural pressure: 754 mmHg

- increase volume of lungs decreases pressure

respiratory pressures: expiration

atmospheric: 760 mmHg

intrapulmonary pressure: 763 mmHg

intrapleural pressure: 757 mmHg

- decrease in volume increases pressure and air is pushed out

mechanics of breathing depends on

differences in pressure

normal quiet breathing: inspiration

Contraction of the diaphragm (moves down) and external intercostal muscles (pulls rib cage out) increases the thoracic and lung volume, decreasing intrapulmonary pressure by about -3 mmHg

normal quiet breathing: expiration

Relaxation of the diaphragm (moves up) and external intercostals (ribs sink in), plus elastic recoil of lungs, decreases lung volume and increases intrapulmonary pressure to about +3mmHg

forced ventilation: inspiration

Inspiration aided by contraction of accessory muscles: scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, parasternal intercostals, and pectoralis minor decreases intrapulmonary pressure by -20mmHg or lower

forced ventilation: expiration

expiration, aided by contraction of oblique/abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles, increases intrapulmonary pressure to +30mmHg or higher

respiratory capacities and volumes measured by

transducer (and biofilter)

transducer

measures pressure on one side of the membrane and compares it to pressure on the other side of the membrane; used to calculate respiratory volumes

tidal volume (TV)

Amount of air that moves in and out (inhaled and exhaled) of the lungs during a normal breath

- male and female volumes lie within 500 mL range

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

amount of air you can inhale on a forced breath (after a normal breath)

males: 3000 mL

females: 1900 mL

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation

males: 1100mL

females: 700 mL

residual volume (RV)

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation; prevents lungs from collapsing (pressure difference)

males: 1200 mL

females: 1100mL

functional residual capacity (FRC)

amount of air in the lungs after a quiet exhale

FRC = ERV + RV

males: 2300 mL

females: 1800 mL

Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal inspiration (includes normal inspiration)

IC = IRV + TV

males: 3500 mL

females: 2400 mL

vital capacity (VC)

the greatest volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs after taking the deepest possible breath (total amount of air you can breath in/out).

VC = IRV+TV+ERV

males: 4600 mL

females: 3100mL

total lung capacity (TLC)

the total amount of air in the lungs

TLC = VC + RV

males: 5800 mL

females: 4200 mL

emphysema

progressive condition in which alveolar tissue is destroyed (walls broken down) resulting in fewer but larger alveoli; causes a decrease in surface area for gas exchange (reduced efficiency of gas exchange)

asthma

an obstruction of airflow through the bronchioles occurring in episodes; the obstruction is due to inflammation of airway mucosa and bronchoconstriction- respiratory conduction zone restricts in response to presence of allergens --> breath is impaired due to narrowed passages --> wheezing

intrapleural space

a potential space between the lungs and the pleural cavity- pressure always less than intrapulmonary pressure so it doesn't press in on the lungs and decrease volume

flow volume loop graph

This type of graph shows a forced expiration as a loop rather than the peaks and valleys of the classic spirogram. The top of the loop represents expiratory flow (vertically; L/s) and volume (horizontally; L). The bottom of the loop represents inspiratory flow and volume.top peak: peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR)bottom peak: peak inspiratory flow rate (PIFR)volume from edge of graph to loop = residual volume (RV)

flow volume loop graph: obstruction

blockage in the airway depresses peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) and peak inspiratory flow rate (PIFR)

- can breathe in the same amount of air but cannot breathe it out as fast

- causes:

-- asthma: bronchoconstriction

--Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): bronchoconstriction

-- emphysema: bronchoconstriction

flow volume loop graph: restriction

restriction of lung expansion (elasticity)

- cannot breathe as much air in

- entire loop minimized (by about half); depressed IRV, ERV, and TLC

- causes:

-- environmental factors: smoke

-- Pulmonary fibroids and mesothelioma: build-up of scar tissues in the lungs prevents expansion

hypoventilation

decreased respiratory rate; increase of CO2 in the blood

- slow elimination of CO2

- increase H+ ions, making more blood acidic (acidosis)

hyperventilation

increase in respiratory rate; decrease of CO2 in the blood

- eliminating too much CO2

- decrease in H+ ions, making blood more basic (alkalosis)

- treatment: paper bag to rebreathe CO2

kidney

organ responsible for excretion; receives blood through the renal artery

renal vein

how blood returns to circulation after moving through the kidneys

ureter

transfers urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

urinary bladder

stores urine

blood

moves wastes and other materials throughout the body

nephron

basic functional unit of the kidney where filtration occurs;

nephron consists of

glomerulus, bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, collecting duct (renal corpuscle and renal tubule)

homeostasis

dynamic constancy of the internal environment, the maintenance of which is the principle function of physiological regulation

how much urine we need to excrete if we don't drink water in order to accommodate need to get rid of waste

400 mL

3 major processes in nephrons

filtration, reabsorption, and secretion

basic functions of the kidney

-regulate volume and osmolarity of the blood

-removal of wastes

-regulate ion concentration

-regulate pH

glomerular filtration rate

volume of filtrate produced by both kidneys per minute

average rates:

women: 115 mL/minute

men: 125 mL/minute

__% of filtrate is returned to the vascular system

99

approximately __% of water in filtrate is reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule

65

reabsorption

uses active and passive transport mechanisms to return most of the salt and water back to the blood; NaCl moves via active transport; water moves via osmosis

secretion

the active transport of substances from peritubular capillaries back into the tubular fluid

substances usually found in urine

Na+, Cl-, K+, urea

substances in urine indicating kidney failure/disease

protein and blood

substance in urine indicating diabetes

glucose

ultrafiltrate

the fluid resulting from the initial filtration of metabolic by-products from the filtered blood within the tubule of the kidney. has to be modified to form urine

what is filtered in the kidneys

ions, sugar, proteins