Biopsychology, History of Psychology, and Research Methods

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering key concepts from Biopsychology, the History of Psychology, and Psychological Research Methods.

What is the primary focus of biopsychology?

Biopsychology explores the biological mechanisms underlying behavior, including genetics, the structure and function of the nervous system, and interactions between the nervous system and endocrine system.

How does Charles Darwin define natural selection in the theory of evolution?

Natural selection is the process by which organisms better suited for their environment survive and reproduce, while those poorly suited die off.

Why does the sickle cell gene remain common in populations of African descent despite being potentially fatal?

Carriers who inherit only one copy of the sickle cell gene are resistant to malaria, making them better suited for environments where malaria is widespread.

What is the distinction between genotype and phenotype?

Genotype refers to an individual's underlying genetic makeup (DNA inherited from parents), whereas phenotype refers to an individual's observable physical and behavioral characteristics.

What genetic combination is required to physically express a recessive allele phenotype?

An individual must be homozygous for the recessive allele, meaning they inherited a recessive copy from both parents ($aa$).

According to a Punnett square crossing two parents who are heterozygous ($Np$) for PKU, what is the chance that their offspring express PKU?

There is a $25\%$ chance of offspring expressing the PKU phenotype.

How do range of reaction and genetic environmental correlation differ regarding gene-environment interactions?

Range of reaction asserts that genes set upper and lower boundaries within which an environment determines where an individual falls; genetic environmental correlation asserts that genes influence our environment and our environment influences gene expression.

Identify the primary structures of a prototypical neuron and their function as illustrated here.

Dendrites receive incoming electrical signals from other neurons, the cell body (soma) contains the nucleus, the axon transmits the signal down its length insulated by a fatty myelin sheath, and terminal buttons store neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles.

What are the exact membrane potential values for the threshold of excitation and peak action potential shown in this graph?

The threshold of excitation occurs at $-55\,mV$ and the peak action potential reaches $+30\,mV$.

What occurs during the process of reuptake at the synapse?

Excess neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are moved back into the presynaptic axon terminal from which they were originally released.

How do agonist drugs differ from antagonist drugs in treating neurotransmitter imbalances?

Agonists mimic or strengthen the effects of a neurotransmitter, whereas antagonists block or impede the normal activity of a neurotransmitter.

What are the functional divisions of the autonomic nervous system shown in this diagram?

The Sympathetic nervous system handles emergency and stress-related 'fight or flight' responses, while the Parasympathetic nervous system controls routine 'housekeeping' and 'rest and restore' functions under relaxed conditions.

Which forebrain structure acts as the sensory relay center for all senses except smell?

The Thalamus.

Which midbrain structures are critical for dopamine production, and what neurodegenerative disorder is linked to their degeneration?

The Substantia nigra and Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA); their degeneration is involved in Parkinson's disease.

Which three structures form the brain stem?

The Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum.

How do CT scans and fMRI scans differ in their approach to imaging the brain?

CT scans pass X-rays through brain tissues of varying densities to construct structural images (e.g., locating tumors), whereas fMRI uses magnetic fields to track changes in blood flow and metabolic activity over time to map brain function.

What is the primary role of the pituitary gland within the endocrine system?

It serves as the 'master gland,' controlling the hormone secretions of all other endocrine glands under regulation from the hypothalamus.

How did Hippocrates' view of human illness revolutionize medicine in Ancient Greece?

Hippocrates stated that illness has natural rather than supernatural causes, introduced the Four Humors theory, and recognized that the brain plays a vital role in thought and behavior.

How did Plato and Aristotle differ regarding the origin of human knowledge?

Plato maintained that knowledge is innate and discovered through reason (Rationalism), whereas Aristotle argued that knowledge is acquired through sensory experience and systematic observation (Empiricism).

What was René Descartes' position on the relationship between mind and body?

Descartes proposed mind-body dualism, stating that the mind and body interact but are distinct entities, and that the physical body functions like a machine.

What concept did John Locke use to describe the state of the human mind at birth?

Tabula Rasa ('Blank Slate'), asserting that humans are born without innate ideas and that all knowledge arises from sensory experience.

Why is the year 1879 celebrated as the birth of scientific psychology?

Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig, transforming psychology into an independent scientific discipline.

What research technique did structuralists like Edward Titchener employ to study conscious experience?

Introspection, a procedure where participants inspected and reported their own conscious thoughts, feelings, and sensations under controlled laboratory conditions.

What was the main focus of William James's functionalism?

Influenced by Charles Darwin, functionalism focused on understanding the purpose and function of conscious thoughts and behaviors in helping organisms adapt to their environment.

What core principle defines Gestalt psychology?

Gestalt psychology asserts that people naturally perceive organized wholes rather than isolated components, summarized by the phrase 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.'

How did John B. Watson redefine psychology through behaviorism?

Watson argued that psychology should abandon unobservable mental processes and strictly study objective, observable behavior using scientific experimentation.

What factors are evaluated in Pamela Hays's ADDRESSING framework in multicultural psychology?

Age & Generational Influences, Developmental & Acquired Disabilities, Religion & Spiritual Orientation, Ethnicity & Race, Socioeconomic Status, Sexual Orientation, Indigenous Heritage, National Origin, and Gender.

What question does the Dodo Bird Verdict raise regarding psychotherapies?

It observes that different psychotherapeutic models often yield equivalent positive outcomes, raising the question of whether common factors across therapy are more important than specific technical methods.

What are the four primary goals of scientific inquiry in psychology?

Description, Prediction, Control, and Explanation.

What key feature makes a scientific theory 'good' according to research methods standards?

A good theory must be falsifiable (capable of producing testable predictions that could prove it wrong), produce a wide variety of hypotheses, and tend toward simplicity.

What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable?

An independent variable is the factor that is directly manipulated by the experimenter, whereas a dependent variable is the factor measured to evaluate the effect of that manipulation.

What is an operational definition?

A definition that qualifies (describes) and quantifies (measures) a variable so that it can be understood and replicated objectively.

How do participant observation and naturalistic observation differ?

In participant observation, the researcher actively joins the environment being studied, while in naturalistic observation, the researcher remains a passive observer separated from the situation without altering ongoing behavior.

What is observer bias in psychological studies?

Systematic errors in observation caused by an observer's pre-existing expectations or beliefs, which skew how behaviors are recorded or assessed.

Interpret the correlation coefficient values shown across this scale.

A coefficient of $-1.0$ indicates a perfect negative correlation, $0$ indicates no correlation, and $+1.0$ indicates a perfect positive correlation.

What is the third variable problem in correlational designs?

The problem wherein a researcher cannot manipulate variables directly and cannot rule out whether an unmeasured third variable ($C$) is causing observed changes in both variable $A$ and variable $B$.

Why must researchers sometimes utilize correlational designs instead of experimental designs?

Correlational designs are necessary when manipulating independent variables directly would be unethical (e.g., deliberately inducing severe combat trauma in soldiers).

What is a confound in experimental research?

An extraneous factor that unintentionally varies alongside the independent variable, preventing clear conclusions about whether changes in the dependent variable were caused solely by the treatment.

How do random sampling and random assignment differ?

Random sampling ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being selected for a study, while random assignment ensures participants in a sample have an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group.

How are internal validity and external validity defined in research?

Internal validity is the degree to which observed experimental effects are caused by the independent variable rather than confounds; external validity is the degree to which study findings generalize to other people, settings, or situations.

Based on this bullseye diagram, what is the distinction between reliability and accuracy in measurement?

Reliability refers to the stability and consistency of a measure over time (tight clustering of hits), while accuracy refers to freedom from error relative to the true value (hitting the bullseye).

For the 11 participant racetrack completion times ($25, 34, 38, 45, 45, 48, 55, 56, 60, 65, 69$ seconds), what are the mean, median, mode, and range?

Mean = $49$ seconds ($\frac{540}{11}$), Median = $48$ seconds, Mode = $45$ seconds, and Range = $44$ seconds ($69 - 25$).

What is the primary responsibility of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

An IRB reviews research proposals to ensure they adhere to scientific and ethical standards, safeguarding the physical and emotional well-being of human research participants.

How do confidentiality and anonymity differ regarding research participant privacy?

Confidentiality means personal identifying information is collected but strictly protected from public disclosure, whereas anonymity means no personal identifying information is ever collected by researchers.