Chapter 1

Structuralism

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism

early school of though promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable to organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Humanistic Psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential

Cognitive Neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

Nature-Nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

Natural Selection

the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contribution to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Behavior Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Levels of Analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

Biopsychosocial Approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological , and social-cultural levels of analysis

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Counseling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

Community Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

Testing Effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extends to other participants and circumstances

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Population

all those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represent the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of the scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both of the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

Placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Independent Variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Confounding Variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

Dependent Variable

if an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Informed Consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance