Structuralism
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Functionalism
early school of though promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable to organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Humanistic Psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential
Cognitive Neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
Nature-Nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
Natural Selection
the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contribution to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Evolutionary Psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
Behavior Genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Positive Psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
Levels of Analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
Biopsychosocial Approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological , and social-cultural levels of analysis
Basic Research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Applied Research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Counseling Psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
Clinical Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
Community Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
Testing Effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review
Intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational Definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extends to other participants and circumstances
Case Study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic Observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Population
all those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represent the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of the scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
Regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
Experimental Group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
Double-Blind Procedure
an experimental procedure in which both of the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
Placebo
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Independent Variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Confounding Variable
in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
Dependent Variable
if an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Informed Consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal Curve
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data
Statistical Significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance