Enlightenment Thinkers & French Rev Causes, Moderate Phase

John Locke (1632-1704)

• English Philosopher

• Wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding & The Two Treatises of Government

• Father of Liberalism

• Main ideas

  • Social contract

  • Natural rights: Life, liberty and property

• Views on government (social contract)

  • Purpose: is to meet the needs of society

  • Consent of the governed, if a gov does not represent the will of the people they have a right to rebel

• Influences the Declaration of Independence and US Constitution

• Famous quote: “All mankind... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions.”

Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679)

• English Philosopher

• Main ideas:

  • Passion vs reasons

  • Absolute GOV

• People are inherently evil (share by religious views at the time)

• Wrote Leviathan after the upheaval of the English Civil War, due to this he defends absolutism.

• People are not intellectually fit to govern themselves → they will choose passions over reasons, human life is a state of war

• Famous quote: “The life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

• French Philosopher

• Wrote The Spirit of Laws

• Main Ideas:

  • Checks and balances

  • Division of power btw branches

• Criticized France’s political and religious institutions

• Despotical rule could be best avoided by the development and separation of powers (GOV branches)

• Checks and balances had to be developed to prevent one branch from exerting too much power that would lead to an absolutist government

• Famous quote: “Power ought to serve as a check to power.”

Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Swiss Philosopher

• Wrote The Social Contract

• Main Ideas

  • General Will

  • Social Contract

• Advocate of democracy and representative government → specifically Direct Democracy!

• Advocate of educating all members within society to see societal progress.

• General Will: What the majority of society wants → the government is elected for the sole purpose of upholding and defending the General Will

• Differ from Hobbes and Locke’s social contract because he focus on collectivism (not communism!!!)

• Famous quote: “Man is born free, and everywhere else he is in chains.”

Voltaire (1694-1778)

• French Philosopher

• Wrote Candide

• Main ideas

  • Separation of powers: state and church

  • Freedom of speech & tolerance and freedom of religion

• Fraternity — everyone, regardless of religion should be treated as brothers

• Challenged some aspects of religion, favored more practical religion aspects and how it can help guide people in society

• Spent some time in the Bastille

• Famous quote: “I may not agree with a word that you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

Social Contract

• A theory proposed by Enlightenment thinkers that state people agree to be governed and this form the government and make laws legitimate

• Image compare Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau’s social contract

General will

• Is a belief that the view held by the masses is the legitimate view

• General = people, will = want → what the ppl want

Revolution

A major change in the underlying organizations within a society, brought about by violent or non-violent means, such as overthrow of the established government in a state

Overview of French Revolution

• Begins as a moderate attempt at reform.

• Swells through the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity → Enlightenment ideas.

• Degenerates into radical bloody violence.

• Swings back to authoritarianism with the dictatorship of Napoleon.

French Revolution long-term causes

• Political: absolute monarch, ancien regime, poor leadership

• Social: enlightenment

• Economic: financial crisis, taxation

Absolutism

A form of government in which all power is invested in the ruler

Feudalism and absolutism in Europe

• For absolutism to work, the monarch must control the church, the nobility, and the assembly.

• In the 1700s, most of Europe was under the feudal system with an absolute monarch.

Divine rights

• The Monarch is subject to no earthly authority.

• The king is not directly subjected to the will of his people.

• Only God can dictate if a king is unjust.

• Anyone else who speaks against them is sacrilege (violation against sth sacred)

Upper class during feudalism

• Housing: Expansive houses that often had servants.

• Diet; plentiful and varied meals of several courses including meats, fruits, and wine.

• Clothing: mostly consisted of velvet coats, silk shirts, lace leather, elaborate gowns.

• Entertainment: included balls, dances, music salons.

• Partying: lots of dances, music, salons

• Sex: Adultery and prostitution were common.

Peasant class during feudalism

• Housing: was mostly single-room huts.

• Diet: was mostly vegetable soup, eggs, cheese, rye bread, and oats.

• Clothing: only two sets of clothing (washed two or three times a year), wooden shoes in winter, barefoot in summer.

• Relationship: Strong family and religious ties.

• Drinking: Violence and drunkenness were prevalent.

France before the Revolution

• Population of 25 million

• Rich farmlands

• A culture that dominates the continent: center of the 18th-century Enlightenment.

• Despite its wealth and influence:

  • Its government is corrupt, inefficient, and in debt.

  • Its class structure is archaic and unjust.

  • Institutions are encrusted with medieval traditionalism.

L’ancien regime

A term denoting the governmental and social structural which excites in Europe before 1789 based on village and agricultural life.

Ancien Regime explanation

• aka the Old Regime

• Ruled by absolute monarchs - our focus is on the Bourbon Dynasty

• born into your class and couldn't move between classes

Bourgeoisie

The growing middle class (merchants, lawyers, doctors, artisans, etc)

King Louis XIV (ruled 1643-1715)

• aka the Sun King.

• Reigned for 72 years.

• Big fan of the Renaissance; was a patron of the arts.

• Constructed the Palace of Versailles - became a symbol of French culture and art.

• Centralized authority - absolute rule strengthened the monarchy.

• France became a major military power and expanded its territory through wars → develop a sense of pride and French nationalism.

• However, spending on the arts, lavish palaces, and wars contributed to mounting national debt.

King Louis XV (ruled 1715-1774)

• Louis XV succeeds his great-grandfather Louis XIV (the Sun King) at the age of 5.

• Weak leader dominated by his royal mistresses and court favorites.

• French nobles regain much of the power and privileges they lost during the reign of Louis XIV.

• Although France is a prosperous and potentially powerful country, the national debt continues to mount.

King Louis XVI (ruled 1774-1792)

• Gets married at age 15 to Marie Antoinette, an Austrian archduchess, in 1770, as part of a political alliance between France and Austria.

• Becomes the King at age 20 and rules for 18 years.

• “Fat, ill-bred boy”

• Isolated and unsociable.

• Liked to hunt and make clocks.

• Interested in food rather than governance.

• Viewed as an incompetent, unprepared, and weak king

Marie Antoinette (ruled 1774-1792)

• Born in Vienna, Austria.

• Youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa and Holy Roman Emperor Francis I.

• Married Louis XVI at age 14.

• Lively, pretty; liked to be attractive.

• Liked fashion and parties

• Rumors about her affair scandal

• Assumed to have political influence over Louis XVI → get criticized

• Extravagant lifestyle while France was in debt → Madame Deficit

Heir issue btw Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette

• Weren’t able to produce an heir for 7 years after marriage

• Louis XVI had phimosis → led to a a lack of sexual desire and prevented him from consummating

• He was scared to get the surgery bc it was painful

King Louis XVI’s political power

• Absolutism — his will was law.

• Lettre de cachet — document signed by the King, which authorized his arbitrary power.

• letters patent — document issued by the monarch/ GOV that grant certain rights, titles, or privileges to a person or group

• Clashed frequently with the parlements.

• King often resorted to the lettres de cachet to coerce the parlements to acquiesce to his will.

Responsibility of the King of France’s

• Appointed the Intendants, the "petty tyrants" who governed France's 30 districts.

• Appointed the people who would collect his taxes and carry out his laws.

• Leveled all taxes and decided how to spend the money.

• Controlled justice by appointing judges.

• Made all laws.

• Could imprison anyone at any time for any reason (blank warrants of arrest were called lettres de cachet).

• Controlled the military.

• Made decisions regarding war and peace.

Summary of long-term political cause

• Monarch with absolute power → sometimes called “despotism”

• Ancien Regime (3 estates)

• Poor, corrupt leadership

Main ideas of Enlightenment

A significant push for social change:

1. Reason could be used to combat ignorance and superstition.

2. Religion should give way to science.

3. Building a better world by challenging the upper class.

4. A philosophy of individualism - questioning traditional values.

5. People began to question traditional methods of government.

Enlightenment emphasized

• Reason

• Tolerance

• Natural law (more associated w. Individualism than collectivism, everyone should be subject to the same laws regardless of class).

• Confidence in modern man.

• Above all - change and progress

Impact of the Enlightenment

• The movement was a critical questioning of traditional institutions, customs, and morals.

• New beliefs in rationality and science had a profound effect on Europe and the rest of the world.

• Enlightenment principles of Liberty, Equality, and Brotherhood are the foundation of the French Revolution.

French salons

• Parisian salons were meeting grounds for discussions on political, social, and cultural discourse.

• Women often hosted these salons, deciding the agenda of topics

• This reduced marginalization of women in Paris → women were aware of and attuned to many political social development despite being excluded from direct participation in discussions.

• Enlightenment thinkers were "regulars" at these salons.

Impact of Enlightenment on the American Revolution

• Inspired the 13 American colonies to revolt against British rule.

• 1776 — Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson borrows heavily from Enlightenment ideas (John Locke).

• 1776-1785 — European Enlightenment writers like Benjamin Franklin was popular in France

• Louis XVI played a key role in supporting the American Revolution (money, troops, naval support).

• 1781 — American victory led to a government based on popular sovereignty (a solid example of the power of common citizens making societal changes)

• The parallels with the French Revolution are clear:

  • Common people revolting against a powerful king who denies them rights.

  • The language used in the American Declaration of Independence and Constitution was well received by French citizen

First estate (0.5%)

• The clergy was divided into lower and upper clergy:

  • Upper clergy were wealthy bishops and archbishops

  • Lower clergy were usually humble, poorly paid, and overworked village priests.

• Owned 10% of land; largest landowner in France.

• Exempt from taxation.

• Collected income & feudal taxes.

• Their responsibilities included:

  • The registration of births, marriages, and deaths.

  • Censored books, served as moral police, operated schools and hospitals, and distributed relief to the poor.

• Roman Catholic Church was very powerful and influential in people's lives.

Second estates (1.5%)

• "Nobles of the Sword"

  • Old traditional feudal nobility (hereditary titles)

  • Held important positions in the Church, army, and courts

• "Nobles of the Robe"

  • Purchase titles to become nobility

  • Held important positions in govt. and law courts

Main Privileges:

• Exclusive hunting & fishing privileges.

• Owned more than 1/4 of land in France.

• Tax exemptions.

• Only nobility could be officials in many courts.

• Civil crime excused/ capital crime had a choice of punishment and special courts.

• In many places, had monopolies on mills, ovens, and wine presses.

Third estates (98%)

• Ranged from wealthy bourgeoisie to landless peasants:

• Workers (sans culottes — they wore long pants)

• Bourgeoisie (businessmen)

• Peasants were forced to do military service + could not hunt or fish on noble's estates + had to use the lord's mill, oven, and pay for them.

• Paid feudal dues (owed to their lords) and most of the taxes

Taxes Paid:

• Taille: Property tax.

• Corvée: Road tax.

• Vingtièmes: Income tax.

• Gabelle: Salt tax.

• Tithe: Catholic land tax.

A financial crisis

• The nobility was exempted from taxes, but was willing to lend the king money at high interest rates.

• France is effectively BANKRUPT because of CONSTANT WARS, mostly with Britain.

  • Seven Years' War (1756-1763).

  • The American Revolution (1775-1781).

• By 1786, fully 50% of France's annual budget goes to interest payments on the growing debt.

• Less than 20% is available for productive functions of the state.

• Attempts at tax and fiscal reform by Controller-General's was blocked by the King

Controller-General’s of Finance

1. A.R.J. Turgot (1774-1776)

2. Jacques Necker (1776-1781)

3. Joly de Fleury (1781-1783)

4. Charles Calonne (1783-1786)

5. Lomenie de Brienne (1787-1788)

A.R.J. Turgot (1774-1776)

• Philosophe, tax reform to eliminate the worst abuses of tax.

• Abolished guilds, freed grain tariffs

• Planned to replace corvée (road tax) with a tax on all three estates.

Jacques Necker (1776-1781)

• Financing the American civil war, borrowed all money (loans = 50% of revenue)

• compte rendu 1781 — terrible finances.

• Published the king's finance to the public → ppl like him (transparency).

Compte Rendu au Roi

• A public financial report by Jacques Necker

• Aimed to make the gov’s accounts look transparent and better than they were by neglecting the borrowed money

• Make his reputation: fighting expensive wars while not raising taxes and showing a surplus → ppl like that

• Misled the public and hamper successor ministers’ efforts at reform

Joly de Fleury (1781-1783)

Vingtième — tax on income

Charles Calonne (1783-1786)

• Borrowed heavily, increased tax

• Plan to have a general tax on all landowners to replace taille (property tax)

• Abolished corvée (road tax)

• Reformed gabelle (salt tax)

• Created a state bank

• Remove internal customs (taxes on domestic traded goods)

• Created the Assembly of Notables (higher than the Parlement) in an attempt to bypass the parlement and pass his proposal → but failed

• Wanted a share of government control = deadlock

• Assembly of the Notables (led by Duc d'Orleans and Marquis de Lafayette) suggested a meeting of the Estate General

• Assembly of the Notables was dismissed

• Calonne fled to England — first émigré of the revolution!

Assembly of Notables

• An advisory group (nobles, clergy, officials) chosen by the King for financial reforms

• Reject Calonne’s proposal, suggest to call for the Estates Generals

• Was dismissed after not able to perform their function

Paris Parlement

• A judicial body (highest court) with significant influence over legal and political matters

• Judges and magistrates from the 2nd estates

• Responsible for reviewing and registering laws/edicts, can also refuse to register royal edicts

• Rejected new taxes and reforms → summoned the Estates General in 1789

Lomenie de Brienne (1787-1788)

• July 1787 — asked the Parlement du Paris for tax on all estate property → Parlement refused.

• Louis gave in to demands to call Estates General the following May.

Bourgeoisie‘s demand of economic changes

• Wanted

  • greater political rights and better management of the state's economic affairs

  • more power along with wealth

  • social equality with the upper classes

  • to be nobility

• Were angry at the upper classes’ special privileges (being exempt from paying heavy taxes)

Urban workers’ demand of economic changes

• No unions allowed.

• Suffered inflation, unemployment and food shortages.

• Were angry at the upper classes’ special privileges

• Wanted: freedom from financiers over trade and wages.

Peasants’ demand of economic changes

• Didn't understand the rise in taxation due to the many wars France was involved in.

• Wanted:

  • More land.

  • Relief from taxation.

  • Feudal dues removed.

French Revolution short-term causes

• Tennis Court Oath and National Assembly

• Bad harvest + harsh winter = bread shortage + starvation

• Storming of the Bastille

French Revolution moderate phase (1789-1791)

1. Estates General (May - June 1789)

2. National Assembly & Tennis Court Oath (June 1789)

3. Storming the Bastille (July 1789)

4. The Great Fear (July-August 1789)

5. Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen (August 1789)

6. Women's March to Versailles (October 1789)

7. France Adopts a New Constitution (1791)

Reforms proposal and National Assembly

• The financial situation grows so bad that Louis XVI calls an Assembly of Notables.

  • Made up of 1st and 2nd Estates.

  • To see if they will pay a new land tax that will apply to all, regardless of social status.

• The Notables refuse to consider the tax and demand that they be granted a greater share in governing France.

• The Notables declare that such sweeping tax changes require the approval of the Estates General.

Abbé Sieyès (1748-1836)

• Writers begin to declare that the 3rd Estate is the true embodiment of the political will of France.

• Many simple parish priests (1st estates) feel more aligned with the 3rd Estate.

• The most famous pamphlet "What is the Third Estate" - 1788 was written by Abbé Sieyès, an obscure lower clergyman

Estates General

• A representative body with members from all three estates → thought that this would satisfy ppl if they had a say in the gov’s matters

• Advise the King; discuss and approve new taxes/ reforms

• Voting system was by order: each state get one vote

• A platform to present cahiers de doléances (notebooks of grievances)

• Convened in May 1789 to address financial crisis

• Dispute over voting procedures led the Third Estate to break away and form the National Assembly.

Preparing for the Estates General

• Winter of 1788-1789

• Members of the estates elected representatives.

• Presented Cahiers

  • Traditional lists of grievances written by the people.

  • Asked for only moderate changes.

Calling of the Estates General

• Louis XVI was desperate for money, so he called a meeting of the Estates General and asked for help.

  • An increasingly frustrated majority demanded a vote in the government.

  • The Third Estate would not help unless he gave into the cahiers de doleances.

The Estates General Meets — May 5, 1789

• Louis XVI agrees to double the number of the 3rd Estate, but voting was still by order

• Most of the 600 members of the 3rd Estate are lawyers, no peasants

• Each estate was asked to meet separately to validate the credentials of its representation

• Outcome: the 3rd Estates delayed voting

The Tennis Court Oath — June 20th, 1789

• The 3rd Estates declare themselves to be the true National Assembly of France

• They pushed their way into the King’s Indoor Tennis Court, where they take an oath not to disband until they draft a constitution.

• Louis XVI responds is to offer a few concessions to the 3rd Estate, but they were too little and too late.

• Finally, Louis XVI accepts the new government, decreeing that all Estates should join the National Assembly.

• Many believe the Tennis Court Oath marks the beginning of the French Revolution

National Assembly

• A revolutionary body: led significant reforms and paved way for a constitutional monarchy and democratic principles

• Formed in June 1789

• Initially members of the Third Estate, later joined by some clergy and nobles

• Abolished feudal privileges (August 4, 1789)

• Adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (August 1789)

• Confiscated Church lands to address the financial crisis

• Drafted and enacted the first French Constitution (1791), transitioning to the Legislative Assembly

National Assembly and Louis XVI’s actions

While the National Assembly work on a constitution for France, the uncertainty of the situation creates fear and distrust.

• Nervous nobles demand that Louis XVI break up the new Assembly.

• Louis XVI fires his finance minister and other more liberal ministers.

• Louis XVI secretly orders an army of 18,000 to mobilize around Paris and Versailles.

• The National Assembly demands an explanation for the arrival of soldiers at Versailles.

Louis XVI’s responses

• Louis grants concessions based on the cahiers.

• Agreed that all 3 estates should meet together and vote by head on any issue except those that only affect the privileges of the 1 and 2 estates.

• Committed to maintaining the 3 Estates, assembled troops to provide support for this.

• July 27 — National Assembly refuses to adjourn.

Bread shortage

• Bread is the main source of food for the poor peasants.

• It’s the king’s responsibility to ensure the peasants have an adequate supply → “The Prime Baker of the Kingdom.”

• Hungry citizens rumored that grain merchants hoard grain and mix in crushed bone meal and chalk to inflate profits.

• Grain shortages → sharp increases in the price of bread → discontent

• Anger at the gap between the hardships of the poor and the luxury of the wealthy widened.

Storming of the Bastille

• Bastille

  • a fortress, state prison that held political enemies

  • a symbol of the despotism of the ruling Bourbon monarchy

• The storming (July 14, 1789)

  • Causes: the need to search for arms to defend themselves and for grain to make bread

  • Symbolize: the start of the start of the French Revolution and the defense of people against the alleged threat of the king's troops

Symbolism behind French tricolor flag

• Red and Blue represent Paris

• White represents the Bourbon

• Parisians were wearing red and blue cockades to support the revolutionary movement

• Lafayette insisted to preserve the monarch so he inserted white

Impact of the Bastille

• Paris was lost to the King → the National Assembly can continue its work at building a civic nation.

• The mob became politicized, under the control of the bourgeois National Assembly.

• The National Assembly began to create institutions and symbols that would become the rallying points for the revolutionaries: the tricolor, the National Guard.

• Storming of the Bastille provided a foundation for French nationalism — Bastille Day (July 14).

Louis XVI capitulates

• Accepts the red cap and the tricolor.

• Appoints Lafayette to Head of National Guard.

• His power would now forever be tempered by the populace.

• Estates General order collapse.

The Great Fear - July 22 - August 6th, 1789

• For rural peasants, the 1780s have witnessed poor harvests.

• Crushing tax burden + poor harvests = a resentful and fearful rural peasantry.

• Panic sets in — known as THE GREAT FEAR.

• Rural uprising → Peasants attack their landlords.

• Burn legal documents that tied peasants to the land of the nobles.

• Impacted the revolution

Peasantry Appeasement

August Decrees — Aug 11, 1789 (response of the National Assembly)

• Abolished feudalism

• Removed the Tithe (catholic land tax)

• Equal Taxation

• Allowed All citizens to hold public office

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (August 27th, 1789)

• No time to write the constitution → the National Assembly puts forward a declaration

• Influenced heavily by Enlightenment ideals and the writings of Locke and Rousseau.

• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen borrows from the American Declaration of Independence (1776) and the US Constitution (1789).

• By declaring the natural rights of man and making no mention of the role of the monarchy → the National Assembly effectively abolishes the nearly 1,000-year-old feudal system.

The Women’s March on Versailles - October 1789

• Poissards: fearless, fish women in Paris.

• They protested about the grain shortage, inflation, and the poor market

• King Louis agreed to sign the Declaration of Rights.

• The crown demanded the king and queen to go to Paris to see the situation and agree to changes proposed by the National Assembly.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy - November 1789-1790

• To finance the French debt, the National Assembly confiscated and sold off church lands

• The Catholic Church itself was reorganized and secularized (separated religion from the state)

• The Clergy had to swear an oath of loyalty to the state → led to a division amongst clergy

The flight to Varennes

• The kings and nobles of continental Europe begin to fear its impact.

• 1791: Counter-revolutionary movement is growing inside and outside France.

• Many nobles have fled France (émigrés) and are actively working to restore the Old Regime and their feudal privileges.

• The royal family tries to flee to Varennes, where Marie Antoinette’s family was located.

• The royal family are disguised as servants

• The king is recognized and apprehended, and forcibly escorted back to Paris.

• He is officially forgiven by the Assembly, but has forever lost the trust of the people of Paris.