Unit Terminology and Methods in Psychology (Lecture Notes)

Flashcards covering key concepts from unit terminology, research design, data types, statistics, and ethics in psychology as presented in the lecture notes.

What is Confirmation Bias?

Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms what you already believe.

What is Hindsight Bias?

Belief that one knew the outcome after it has occurred, often ignoring initial uncertainty.

What is Overconfidence?

Having too much faith in one's own judgments or abilities despite evidence to the contrary.

What is Empirical Evidence?

Information obtained through observation, experimentation, or measurement; objective data used to counter bias.

What is the Scientific Method in psychology?

A systematic process involving observations, forming hypotheses, testing via studies, analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and communicating results.

What is a Hypothesis in psychology?

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

What does it mean for a hypothesis to be falsifiable?

It can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experiment.

What is Peer Review?

A process where research articles are evaluated by experts in the field before publication.

What is Replication in research?

Repeating a study with new participants to see if findings can be observed again.

What is Reliability in measurement?

Consistency of a measure across time and conditions.

What is Validity in research?

The extent to which a study or measurement accurately measures what it intends to.

What is the American Psychological Association (APA)?

A leading professional organization for psychology that promotes ethical standards and the dissemination of psychological knowledge.

What are Research Designs?

The overall plan for a study, including experimental, correlational, and descriptive designs.

What is Methodology?

The systematic approach, procedures, and decisions used to conduct research (sampling, data collection, analysis).

What is Quantitative Data?

Numeric data used to quantify variables and analyze patterns.

What is Qualitative Data?

Non-numeric data focusing on experiences, meanings, and descriptions.

What are Likert Scales?

A survey scale from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree used to measure attitudes.

What are Structured Interviews?

Interviews with predetermined questions asked in the same order to all participants.

What is the Survey Technique?

A method of collecting data via surveys, yielding qualitative and/or quantitative data.

What is the Wording Effect?

Subtle changes in question wording that can influence responses.

What is Social Desirability Bias?

Tendency to respond in a way that is viewed favorably by others.

What is Naturalistic Observation?

Observing behavior in real-world settings without interference.

What is a Case Study?

An in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon.

What is Correlational Research?

Examines relationships between two or more naturally occurring variables; does not imply causation.

What is the Third Variable Problem?

A third, unmeasured variable may influence the observed relationship between two variables.

What is a Scatterplot?

A graph that displays the relationship between two variables.

What is the Correlation Coefficient (r)?

A statistic that quantifies the strength and direction of a relationship, ranging from -1 to +1.

What is a Positive Correlation?

Variables move in the same direction; as one increases, the other tends to increase.

What is a Negative Correlation?

Variables move in opposite directions; as one increases, the other tends to decrease.

What is the Experimental Method?

A research method that manipulates an independent variable and observes effects on a dependent variable.

What is an Independent Variable?

The variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates.

What is a Dependent Variable?

The variable that is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

What is a Confounding Variable?

An uncontrolled variable that can distort the observed relationship.

What are Operational Definitions?

Clear procedures for measuring or manipulating variables to ensure replicability.

What is an Experimental Group?

Participants exposed to the independent variable.

What is a Control Group?

Participants not exposed to the active manipulation; serves as a baseline for comparison.

What is Random Assignment?

Assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce bias and ensure group comparability.

What is the Placebo Effect?

Improvement due to belief in treatment rather than the treatment itself.

What is Experimenter Bias?

Researchers' expectations influence how the study is conducted or interpreted.

What is a Single-Blind Study?

Participants do not know their group assignment, but researchers may.

What is a Double-Blind Study?

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.

What is a Placebo Condition?

A control condition that mimics the experimental condition without the active component.

What is a Sample?

A subset of individuals from a larger population used for research.

What is a Representative Sample?

A sample that reflects the demographics and characteristics of the population.

What is Random Sample?

Every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.

What is Sample Bias?

Bias that results when the sample is not representative of the population.

What is Generalizability?

The extent to which findings from a sample apply to the broader population.

What are Descriptive Statistics?

Numerical measures that summarize a dataset (e.g., mean, median, mode).

What are Inferential Statistics?

Techniques that allow generalizations from a sample to a population.

What is the Mean?

The average value of a dataset.

What is the Median?

The middle value when data are ordered.

What is the Mode?

The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

What is the Range?

The difference between the highest and lowest values.

What is the Normal Curve (Normal Distribution)?

A bell-shaped distribution where most data cluster around the mean.

What is Positive Skew?

Most data cluster on the left with a tail extending to the right.

What is Negative Skew?

Most data cluster on the right with a tail extending to the left.

What is Standard Deviation?

A measure of how spread out scores are around the mean.

What is Percentile Rank?

The percentage of scores at or below a particular value.

What is Statistical Significance?

The likelihood that observed results are not due to chance (often assessed with a p-value).

What is Meta-Analysis?

A statistical analysis that combines results from multiple studies on the same topic.

What is an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

A committee that reviews research proposals to protect participants' rights and welfare.

What is Informed Consent?

Voluntary agreement to participate, based on full information about the study.

What is Informed Assent?

Age-appropriate or cognitively appropriate agreement when participants cannot give full consent.

What is Confidentiality in research?

Protecting participants' identities and data from disclosure.

What is Deception in psychology research?

Misleading participants about the true purpose or procedures of a study, justified only in certain cases.

What are Confederates in research?

Individuals who are part of a study but secretly work with the researcher and know the true purpose.

What is Debriefing?

Providing participants with full information about the study after participation.

What does Genie illustrate in psychology?

Genie’s case supports the idea of a critical period for language development.

What does the Milgram study illustrate about ethics?

The use of deception in research and the need for ethical safeguards to protect participants.

What is the Little Albert study illustrate about ethics?

Ethical concerns around informed consent and debriefing; harm to a child in a conditioning experiment.

What are Tally Counts in Naturalistic Observation?

Counting occurrences of a specific behavior during observation.

What are Observer Narratives in Naturalistic Observation?

Descriptive notes recorded by observers about behaviors and interactions.

What is Audio/Video Recording in Naturalistic Observation?

Using recordings to document behaviors for later analysis.

What is the importance of ethics in psychological research?

To protect participants, ensure informed consent, minimize harm, and maintain integrity in findings.