Unit Terminology and Methods in Psychology (Lecture Notes)

Brain imaging studies investigating neural correlates of addiction
Influence of social media on self-esteem and body image
Effects of meditation on attention and memory
Impact of music genres on mood regulation and well-being in adolescents
Psychological benefits of participating in team sports (e.g., increased self-confidence, resilience)
Effects of media exposure on children's social development and behavior
Psychology of brand loyalty and brand attachment in consumer preferences
VR exposure therapy for treating phobias and anxiety disorders
Effectiveness of smartphone apps delivering CBT and mindfulness interventions for anxiety/depression
Psychological consequences of natural disasters on survivors' mental health

Cognitive biases distort thinking and lead to incorrect conclusions
Confirmation Bias
- Definition: tendency to seek/interpret/remember information that confirms preconceptions
- Example: student believes eating chocolate before a test improves performance; recalls successes, ignores failures
Hindsight Bias
- Definition: belief that one knew the outcome after it has occurred
- Example: friend claims they knew the winning team would win after the fact, ignores misses
Overconfidence
- Definition: excessive faith in one's own judgments/abilities
- Example: student confident about exam without studying, ignores prior poor feedback, only relents after repeated failures
Common Misconceptions (without evidence) (examples listed):
- Opposites attract in relationships
- We only use 10% of our brain
- Men are better at math than women
- Introverts are shy; extroverts are outgoing
- Multitasking increases productivity
- Dreams have fixed meanings
- Violent media causes real-life aggression
- Personalities are fixed and unchangeable
- Talking about suicide with someone who is depressed will increase risk

Empirical Evidence: information gathered through observation, experiment, or measurement
Role of empirical data in countering cognitive biases and guiding conclusions
Example: smartphone usage and sleep quality survey; correlational analysis
Psychology as a science: uses the scientific method to generate empirical evidence, test hypotheses, and develop theories rooted in objective observation

Hypothesis: a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables
Examples:
- Mindfulness meditation lowers stress vs. no mindfulness
- Increased social media use associated with higher depression in adolescents
- Praise for effort increases persistence/self-esteem
- Exposure to natural light improves sleep and mood
- Quiet study environment improves exam performance
Falsifiability: a hypothesis must be testable and potentially disprovable
Example: Exposure to violent video games increases aggression (testable by randomized groups and aggression measures; falsified if no difference)

Peer Review: research articles evaluated by experts before publication; assessment of quality, validity, significance
Process stages: submission → editorial office → assignment to reviewers → reviewer feedback → editor decision → author revisions → final decision → publication
Replication: repeat a study with new participants under similar conditions to test reliability
Outcomes: if replication aligns with original results, reliability is supported; discrepancies prompt further investigation
Publication of replication results contributes to robustness and generalizability of findings

Reliability: consistency of a measure/test across repeated administrations under similar conditions
- $ext{Reliability} o ext{Repeated, Reliable Results (RRR)}$
Validity: extent to which a study or measurement captures what it intends to measure

Leading professional organization advancing psychology
Founded in 1892; largest association with over 121,000 members
Activities: publications, conferences, advocacy, education
Mission: promote ethical standards, support psychological research, practice, and public dissemination

Example study: music and mood with two groups (upbeat vs calming) for 30 minutes
Hypothesis (example): upbeat music yields more positive mood than calming music
Falsifiability: if calming music yields higher mood or no difference, the hypothesis is falsified

Research Design: overall plan/strategy (experimental, correlational, descriptive)
Methodology: specific techniques and procedures (sampling, data collection, data analysis, quality assurance)
Data collection methods: surveys, interviews, observations
Data analysis methods: statistical tests, qualitative coding

Likert Scales: attitude/opinion scales (Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree)
Quantitative Data: numerical data; e.g., hours, scores
Qualitative Data: non-numerical data; e.g., descriptions, interviews
Structured Interviews: predetermined questions in fixed order for consistency
Survey Technique: self-report data; can yield qualitative or quantitative data depending on questions
Wording Effect: subtle changes in wording influence responses
Social Desirability Bias: respondents answer in a way perceived as favorable
Naturalistic Observation: observe behavior in real-world settings without interference
- Data collection methods: tally counts, observer narratives, audio/video recordings
Case Study: in-depth examination of a single case or small number of cases
- Example: Genie (the