U4- Social Psychology and Personality

Personality psychologist

a mental health professional who specializes in studying and understanding a person's unique thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and personality traits, and how they impact interactions and overall mental health

social psychologist

a person that studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others, real or imagined, and how social interactions shape human behavior and group dynamics

person perception

the mental processes we use to form impressions of and make inferences about other people, including evaluating their traits and behaviors, and how these evaluations influence our interactions with them

attribution theory

social psychology concept that explains how individuals interpret and understand behaviors and events by attributing them to certain factors, either internal (dispositional) or external (situational).

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for people to overemphasize dispositional attributes for others' behavior while underestimating situational influences.

actor-observer bias

the tendency of people to attribute their own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal factors.

prejudice

a preconceived opinion or bias against someone or something, often not based on reason or actual experience.

stereotypes

widely held beliefs or generalizations about a particular group of people, often based on limited knowledge or biased assumptions. They can influence how individuals perceive others and may lead to unfair treatment or discrimination.

discriminate

the unfair or negative treatment of individuals or groups based on their perceived social characteristics or group membership, often stemming from prejudice or stereotypes

just-world phenomenon

cognitive bias where people believe that life is fair – that individuals generally get what they deserve, whether it be good or bad.

social identity

how individuals identify themselves in relation to others according to their group membership.

ingroup

a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging. It is typically characterized by shared interests, values, or characteristics.

outgroup

social groups with which an individual does not identify. They are often seen as different or separate from one's own group.

ingroup bias

favoring one's own group over other groups.

scapegoat theory

prejudice and discrimination can arise when individuals or groups unfairly blame another group for problems or failures, offering an outlet for frustration and anger

other-race effect

the tendency to recognize faces of one's own racial group more accurately than faces of other racial groups

attitudes

a learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably towards a person, object, idea, or event, encompassing cognitive (beliefs), affective (emotions), and behavioral (actions) components

foot-in-door phenomenon

a compliance tactic that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up by having that person agree to a modest request.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

cognitive dissonance theory

individuals experience psychological discomfort when they hold two or more conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. This discomfort often leads to a motivation to reduce the dissonance by changing one's beliefs or behaviors, which is crucial in understanding social influence, attitude formation, and the process of persuasion.

persuasion

the process of influencing someone's attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or decisions through various strategies or methods, often studied in psychological experiments to understand how people change their opinions or comply with requests

peripheral route persuasion

a method of influencing attitudes and beliefs by appealing to superficial cues and emotions rather than logical arguments or deep processing. It relies on factors such as attractiveness, credibility, and emotional appeals.

central route persuasion

a method of persuasion where people are convinced by the content of a message, focusing on logic, evidence, and strong arguments, leading to more lasting attitude change

norms

social expectations or rules that guide our behavior and influence how we act in different situations. They are the accepted standards of behavior within a particular group or society.

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard or expectation.

normative social influence

changing one's behavior in order to fit into a group due its pressure, even if there isn't any direct pressure applied.

informational social influence

when one turns to others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situations because they believe others may have more knowledge about what is going on.

obedience

changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure.

social facilitation

the phenomenon where the presence of others enhances performance on simple or well-learned tasks, but hinders performance on complex or novel tasks

social loafing

the phenomenon where individuals exert less effort when working on a task in a group compared to when they work alone.

deindividuation

losing self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

group polarization

the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members.

group think

psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people, in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.

culture

shared beliefs, values, behavior patterns and artifacts that characterize a group of people.

tight culture

a society with strong social norms, low tolerance for deviance, and strict sanctions for rule-breaking

loose cultures

a society with weaker social norms, a higher tolerance for deviant behavior, and less emphasis on strict rules and regulations

aggression

any behavior, physical or verbal, intended to harm or destroy, whether another person, animal, or object

frustration-aggression principle

suggests that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger which can generate aggression.

social scripts

guidelines for how to behave in certain social situations. They're like a playbook that society gives us for different scenarios.

mere exposure effect

a psychological phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.

passionate love

intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy but when it’s not, we feel sadness and despair.

companionate love

type of love characterized by deep affection, intimacy, trust, and commitment. It's the kind of love that develops over time in long-term relationships.

equity

the balance of give-and-take in a relationship. It's about fairness and justice, where both parties feel their contributions and benefits are proportionate.

self-disclosure

the process of revealing personal, intimate information about oneself to others.

altruism

unselfish concern for the well-being of others, involving actions that benefit others at a cost to oneself, without expectation of personal gain or reward

bystander effect

a social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.

social exchange theory

our relationships and interactions with others are based on an analysis of costs (negative outcomes) and benefits (positive outcomes).

reciprocity norm

a social expectation that we should return help to those who have helped us.

social responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them or those who need assistance even if doing so may not offer any visible reward.

conflict

the inner struggles and tensions that arise between different desires, needs, or goals within an individual's mind. These conflicts can occur at both conscious and unconscious levels.

social traps

situations in which individuals or groups pursue immediate benefits that later result in negative consequences for the group as a whole.

mirror-image perceptions

a psychological concept where each party involved in a conflict views themselves as ethical and peaceful, while viewing the opposing party as evil and aggressive.

self-fulfilling prophecies

a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to the positive feedback between belief and behavior.

superordinate goals

mutually desirable goals that require two or more groups to cooperate and work together to achieve, often reducing conflict and promoting positive intergroup relations

grit

personality trait that involves perseverance and passion for long-term goals, despite obstacles or failures.

psychoanalysis

a therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind.

unconscious

consists of mental processes that occur automatically and are not available to introspection or direct examination by our conscious mind.

free association

a method used in psychoanalysis where patients are encouraged to share whatever comes into their mind, regardless of how irrelevant or nonsensical it may seem. This technique aims to uncover hidden thoughts and feelings that might be causing psychological distress.

id

one of three parts of personality in Freud's model. It is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviors. It demands immediate gratification

ego

the part of the mind that mediates between the conscious and unconscious, and is responsible for reality testing and a sense of personal identity.

superego

part of the mind that incorporates values and morals from society which are learned from one's parents or others. It works in contradiction to the id by striving for perfection instead of pleasure.

defense mechanisms

unconscious psychological strategies that individuals use to protect themselves from anxiety and maintain their self-esteem. These mechanisms are employed by the ego to manage conflicts between the demands of the id, superego, and reality.

repression

a psychological defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously pushes away thoughts, feelings, or memories that cause discomfort or distress.

humanistic theorists

people that emphasize the inherent goodness of people and their capacity for growth and self-actualization, focusing on conscious experiences and personal responsibility

hierarchy of needs

A motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. From bottom to top, the levels are physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization.

self-actualization

the process of realizing and fulfilling one's potential and capabilities. It's the highest level of psychological development where personal growth, fulfillment, and accomplishment are sought.

self-transcendence

the psychological concept of surpassing or going beyond one's personal self and experiencing a greater sense of purpose, connection, or unity with others, nature, or some form of higher power.

unconditional positive regard

concept developed by Carl Rogers that involves accepting and respecting others without judgment or evaluation - basically showing complete support for someone no matter what they say or do.

self-concept

an understanding you have of yourself that includes elements such as intelligence level, gender identity roles, racial identity roles etc., which influence how we perceive ourselves both in the present and what we want to become in the future.

traits

characteristic patterns of behavior or conscious motives which can be observed in individuals across various situations.

personality inventories

questionnaires designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several personality traits at once.

Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)

a widely used psychological assessment tool designed to measure various aspects of an individual's personality and mental health. It consists of a series of true/false questions that assess different personality traits, attitudes, and psychological disorders.

empirically derived

knowledge or methods obtained through direct observation, experimentation, and systematic data collection, rather than relying on speculation or theoretical assumptions

big five factors

a theory in psychology that identifies five broad dimensions used by some psychologists to describe the human personality and psyche. These are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (often remembered by the acronym OCEAN).

social cognitive perspective

an approach in psychology that emphasizes the interaction between cognitive processes (such as thoughts and beliefs) and social factors in shaping human behavior. It focuses on how individuals interpret, understand, and respond to their environment based on their cognitive abilities.

behavioral approach

approach that focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal events like thinking and emotion. It suggests that all behaviors are learned through interaction with our environment.

reciprocal determinism

theory that a person's behavior, personal factors (like thoughts and beliefs), and the environment all interact and influence each other in a continuous cycle, rather than being solely determined by one factor

self

an individual's subjective sense of identity, encompassing their thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and perceptions about themselves, including self-concept, self-esteem, and self-awareness. 

spotlight effect

psychological phenomenon where people tend to believe they are being noticed more than they really are. It's the feeling that everyone is watching and judging your every move.

self-esteem

an individual's overall subjective emotional evaluation of his or her own worth. It encompasses beliefs about oneself as well as emotional states such as triumph, despair, pride and shame.

self-efficacy

the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. It plays a major role in how we approach goals, tasks, and challenges.

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute positive events to one's own character but attribute negative events to external factors. It's a common type of cognitive bias that has been extensively studied in social psychology.

narcissism

personality trait characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance, a deep need for excessive attention and admiration, troubled relationships, and a lack of empathy for others.

individualistic

social or cultural tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the individual and their rights, independence, and relationships with other individuals. 

collectivism

cultural value that emphasizes group goals above personal goals and the interdependence of societal members.

Regression

a defense mechanism that involves reverting to behaviors typical of an earlier stage of development in response to stress or anxiety.

Reaction formation

a defense mechanism where unacceptable impulses are transformed into their opposites, resulting in behaviors that are dramatically different from one's true feelings.

Projection

a defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own undesirable thoughts or feelings onto others.

Rationalization

a defense mechanism that involves justifying one's actions or feelings by presenting reasonable or acceptable explanations, often to avoid facing the true motives or guilt behind those actions.

Displacement

a defense mechanism in which negative emotions or impulses are redirected from their original source to a safer, substitute target.

Sublimination

a defense mechanism that involves channeling unacceptable impulses or feelings into socially acceptable activities or behaviors.

Denial

a defense mechanism where an individual refuses to accept reality or facts, thus blocking external events from awareness.