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Role of judicial activism & judicial restraint

1) judicial activism is an approach where justices use interpretation to achieve social and political goals and may overturn actions of political institutions or previous decisions

2) judicial restraint is an approach where justices show greater respect for elected institutions and precedent, only intervening when the Constitution is clearly breached

3) critics argue judicial activism allows judges to create new rights

4) supporters argue it protects civil liberties and allows the Constitution to evolve

5) the Constitution prioritises checks and balances and protection of liberties as well as democracy

The effectiveness of the Supreme Court in protecting rights

1) the Supreme Court often has the final say on rights due to judicial review and constitutional protections 2) disputes exist over which rights are protected by the Constitution 3) the Court may either expand or restrict rights depending on interpretation 4) effectiveness depends on the Court's powers, willingness to act and ideological outlook

Constitutional rights

The rights specifically outlined for citizens within the Constitution, Bill of Rights and subsequent amendments.

Key developments in racial rights in contemporary US politics

1) major progress has occurred in racial equality and representation 2) racial inequality and discrimination remain significant issues 3) debates continue over voting rights, representation and affirmative action

Methods used by racial rights campaigners

1) demonstrations and civil resistance 2) legal action through the courts 3) voter registration drives 4) protection of voting rights 5) increasing representation in political institutions

Affirmative action

A policy of favouring historically disadvantaged members of a community. 1) based on the belief that legal equality alone does not ensure social and economic equality 2) aims to increase opportunities for disadvantaged groups 3) remains controversial and subject to political and legal challenge

Benefits of affirmative action

1) helps improve socio-economic opportunities for minorities 2) can reduce discrimination and segregation 3) may increase minority representation in education and employment

Costs of affirmative action

1) may be viewed as a form of discrimination 2) focuses on outcomes rather than underlying causes of inequality 3) has not eliminated racial inequality

The Supreme Court is powerful

1) judicial review allows it to overturn actions it considers unconstitutional 2) the vagueness of the Constitution gives significant scope for interpretation 3) judicial independence protects the Court from political pressure 4) constitutional amendment is difficult, making decisions hard to reverse

The Supreme Court is NOT powerful

1) constitutional wording limits judicial interpretation 2) jurisdiction is limited to legal and constitutional matters 3) the Court may be influenced by political and public pressures 4) other branches can constrain the Court

Imperial judiciary

An all-powerful judiciary on whom checks and balances are weak and ineffective.

The Supreme Court is political (essay)

1) constitutional interpretation may reflect ideological views 2) judicial activism and restraint can have major political consequences 3) appointments are often influenced by ideology 4) confirmation processes can become politicised 5) Court decisions can significantly affect public policy

The Supreme Court is judicial (essay)

1) decisions are based on the Constitution 2) justices are independent once appointed 3) the Court is separated from elected institutions 4) rulings are based on legal interpretation rather than electoral concerns 5) judicial independence supports neutrality

Originalism

The idea that the meaning of the Constitution is fixed and should not be reinterpreted.

Living Constitution

The idea that the Constitution is an evolving document that can change through interpretation.

Loose constructionism

A legal philosophy favouring broad interpretation of constitutional language.

Strict constructionism

A legal philosophy favouring interpretation based closely on the written text.

Stare decisis

The principle of following precedent and maintaining previous judicial decisions.

Main stages of presidential elections

1) primaries and caucuses 2) party conventions 3) presidential election through the Electoral College

Caucuses

Meetings of party supporters who select delegates to support presidential candidates.

Primary

A statewide election in which voters choose a party's presidential candidate.

Primaries and caucuses

1) candidates compete against members of their own party 2) delegates are awarded based on results 3) delegates choose the party nominee at the convention 4) states use different systems and voting rules 5) voting occurs on different dates across states

Voting rules in US primaries and caucuses

1) caucuses involve meetings and discussion before voting 2) semi-closed primaries allow participation by party supporters and independents 3) closed primaries restrict voting to registered party supporters 4) open primaries allow voters to choose which party primary to enter

Advantages of the primary/caucus process

1) promotes political debate and discussion 2) increases voter choice and participation 3) tests candidates' popularity and electability 4) allows policy ideas to be developed and challenged

Disadvantages of the primary/caucus process

1) can expose divisions within parties 2) timing may advantage early voting states 3) different state rules create inconsistency 4) some groups may be excluded from participation

Invisible primary

The period before formal voting when candidates seek funding, endorsements and support.

What about invisible primaries?

1) candidates seek support from donors, activists and party figures 2) fundraising and polling influence perceptions of viability 3) early organisation can provide advantages 4) allows lesser-known candidates to gain recognition

The role of party conventions

1) formally select presidential and vice-presidential nominees 2) decide the party platform 3) provide publicity for candidates 4) reunite the party after primaries 5) mobilise activists and supporters

Brokered convention

Occurs when no candidate wins a majority of delegates on the first ballot and additional rounds of voting are required.

Delegates & superdelegates

1) delegates support candidates at party conventions 2) superdelegates have greater freedom in choosing candidates 3) superdelegates are usually senior party figures 4) Democratic and Republican parties use different systems

How the Electoral College works

1) each state is allocated electoral votes 2) candidates compete on a state-by-state basis 3) most states use a winner-takes-all system 4) a candidate needs a majority of electoral votes to win 5) the system reflects federalism and state representation 6) if no candidate wins a majority, Congress decides the outcome

Delegates vs electors

1) delegates help choose party nominees 2) electors formally choose the President in the Electoral College

Party system

The number of parties with a realistic chance of exercising political power.

Party system in the USA

1) dominated by Democrats and Republicans 2) generally considered a two-party system 3) smaller parties rarely achieve major electoral success

Incumbency

The current holder of a political office.

Incumbency: advantages

1) greater visibility and name recognition 2) access to governmental resources and experience 3) established campaign organisations 4) often faces weaker primary opposition

Incumbency: disadvantages

1) responsibility for unpopular events and policies 2) greater media scrutiny 3) financial advantages do not guarantee success 4) primary challenges may expose weaknesses

Campaign finance

Money raised or spent to influence election campaigns.

PAC (Political Action Committee)

An organisation that raises and spends money to support or oppose political candidates.

The role of campaign finance

1) funds advertising and campaign activity 2) supports parties, candidates and political organisations 3) raises concerns about influence, transparency and inequality

Super PACs

Organisations that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money independently of candidates.

Social & moral issues between the two parties

1) Democrats generally take a more progressive position 2) Republicans generally take a more conservative position 3) disagreements often involve civil rights, abortion and LGBTQ+ rights 4) debates continue over equality and individual freedoms

The two parties: economic policy

1) Democrats favour greater government intervention and welfare provision 2) Democrats support measures to reduce economic inequality 3) Republicans favour lower taxation and limited government intervention 4) Republicans emphasise free markets and personal responsibility

The two parties on social welfare

1) Democrats support greater government involvement in welfare provision 2) Republicans emphasise individual responsibility and limited government 3) disagreement centres on the role of government in addressing social needs

Factions

Subgroups within political parties based on ideology, interests or social characteristics.

Types of Democrats

1) moderates and centrists 2) liberals and progressives 3) conservative Democrats

Types of Republicans

1) social and moral conservatives 2) fiscal conservatives 3) moderate conservatives

Religious right

A socially conservative movement promoting traditional values and opposing abortion and many LGBTQ+ rights.

Factors that affect voting patterns in the US: race

1) Black voters generally support Democrats 2) Hispanic voters are more divided but often support Democrats 3) White voters are more evenly split but often lean Republican 4) racial and economic factors influence voting behaviour

Factors that affect voting patterns in the US: religion

1) religious groups often vote differently based on social values 2) many Protestant Christians support Republicans 3) many Jewish voters support Democrats 4) issues such as abortion and LGBTQ+ rights influence voting patterns

Factors that affect voting patterns in the US: gender

1) men are generally more likely to support Republicans 2) women are generally more likely to support Democrats 3) differences are often linked to views on social issues, economic policy and representation

Factors that affect voting patterns in the US: education

1) less educated voters are generally more likely to support Republicans 2) more educated voters are generally more likely to support Democrats 3) educational background can shape political values and policy preferences

Policy group

A group that attempts to influence a broad area of public policy.

Professional group

A group that represents the economic or professional interests of its members.

Single-interest group

A group that campaigns on a specific issue or cause.

Why are interest groups so significant?

1) constitutional rights protect interest group activity 2) federalism and separation of powers create multiple access points 3) elections provide opportunities to influence outcomes 4) politicians are often open to persuasion 5) parties are relatively decentralised and weakly disciplined

Factors affecting the influence of interest groups

1) membership and grassroots support 2) financial resources 3) political contacts and access 4) expertise and specialist knowledge

Traditional lobbying

Attempting to influence legislation by directly communicating with lawmakers or decision-makers.

Grassroots lobbying

Mobilising members of the public to influence lawmakers and decision-makers.

How interest groups influence the President

1) direct lobbying 2) electioneering 3) generating publicity and shaping public opinion 4) funding campaigns through PACs and Super PACs

How interest groups influence Congress

1) lobbying congressional leaders and committees 2) lobbying individual members 3) proposing legislation through members of Congress 4) electioneering and campaign support

How interest groups influence the Supreme Court

1) litigation 2) amicus briefs 3) influencing judicial appointments

Tactics of interest groups

1) publicity campaigns 2) grassroots activity 3) legal action 4) lobbying 5) electioneering

Do interest groups enhance or restrict democracy?

Enhance: 1) increase participation 2) provide representation 3) check government power

Restrict: 1) may favour powerful interests 2) can increase inequality of influence 3) may contribute to polarisation

Case studies on interest groups

1) environmental groups promote environmental protection 2) labour groups represent workers' interests 3) civil liberties groups protect rights and freedoms

Interest groups are more effective than political parties

1) can focus resources on specific issues and candidates 2) often maintain close relationships with politicians 3) campaign finance increases their influence 4) can influence elections and policymaking directly

Interest groups are NOT more effective than political parties

1) parties remain central to elections 2) parties provide political identity and organisation 3) parties mobilise voters and candidates 4) candidates generally rely on party labels

Factors influencing legislation in the USA

1) elections 2) public opinion 3) voter turnout 4) party control of institutions 5) political circumstances

The role of Congress in shaping legislation

1) proposes, debates and passes legislation 2) committees scrutinise bills 3) oversees executive implementation 4) represents constituent interests 5) party leadership influences the legislative agenda

The role of President in shaping legislation

1) vetoes or signs legislation 2) uses executive orders 3) sets the policy agenda 4) negotiates with Congress 5) uses public influence to support proposals

The role of interest groups in shaping legislation

1) lobbying 2) campaign contributions 3) public advocacy 4) litigation 5) providing expertise and information

The role of media in shaping legislation

1) informs the public 2) sets the political agenda 3) shapes public opinion 4) holds government accountable 5) influences debate over policy proposals

Positive impact of US interest groups

1) promote social justice and equality 2) provide expertise and information 3) increase political participation 4) strengthen pluralist democracy 5) represent diverse interests

Negative impact of US interest groups

1) wealthy groups may have excessive influence 2) can contribute to political polarisation 3) may distort electoral competition 4) can prioritise special interests over the public interest

US foreign policy is dominated as much by Congress as by the presidency (essay)

1) checks and balances require cooperation 2) Congress controls funding 3) Congress responds closely to public opinion 4) congressional committees scrutinise foreign policy 5) treaties and appointments require congressional involvement

US foreign policy is dominated by the President more than Congress (essay)

1) commander-in-chief powers strengthen presidential leadership 2) executive agreements allow independent action 3) Presidents often dominate foreign affairs 4) courts have generally recognised broad presidential authority in foreign policy

The effective working of the US Constitution depends more on interest groups than the Supreme Court (essay)

1) interest groups help overcome political gridlock 2) interest groups influence legislation and litigation 3) interest groups campaign to uphold constitutional principles 4) interest groups help adapt politics to changing social demands

The effective working of the US Constitution depends more on the Supreme Court than interest groups (essay)

1) judicial review protects the Constitution 2) the amendment process limits special-interest influence 3) the Court adapts constitutional principles to modern issues 4) constitutional interpretation ensures long-term stability

The presidential power of persuasion is the most significant influence on the policies and ideas of political parties (essay)

1) the President receives significant media attention 2) Presidents influence national policy agendas 3) parties often need presidential support to pass legislation 4) successful persuasion can shape party priorities

Other factors influence the policies and ideas of political parties (essay)

1) parties can develop policies independently 2) party factions influence policy direction 3) interest groups shape party positions 4) electoral considerations affect policy choices

The constitutional system of checks and balances is an obstacle to effective government (essay)

1) can produce gridlock 2) slows decision-making 3) makes major reforms difficult 4) can create conflict between institutions

The constitutional system of checks and balances is NOT an obstacle to effective government (essay)

1) prevents excessive concentration of power 2) protects liberty and constitutional principles 3) encourages scrutiny of legislation 4) may be less restrictive under unified government

The main factors affecting voting behaviour in Congress are the divisions within and between the political parties (essay)

1) party factions influence voting 2) increasing polarisation encourages party-line voting 3) ideological differences shape legislative behaviour

There are other factors affecting voting behaviour in Congress (essay)

1) personal beliefs 2) constituency interests 3) lobbyists and interest groups 4) public opinion 5) political circumstances and crises

The growth in presidential power has led to a corresponding decline in federalism (essay)

1) growth of federal spending increases national influence 2) Presidents increasingly shape domestic policy 3) expansion of federal authority may reduce state autonomy

The growth in presidential power has led to an increase in federalism (essay)

1) state powers remain constitutionally protected 2) states continue to legislate independently 3) states challenge federal actions through the courts 4) the Supreme Court continues to uphold federal principles

Affirmative action has been more significant than minority participation in Congress in promoting racial equality (essay)

1) affirmative action expands opportunities 2) courts have often supported affirmative action 3) Presidents and governments can promote equality programmes 4) affirmative action addresses inequalities beyond representation

Minority participation in Congress has been more important than affirmative action in promoting racial equality (essay)

1) increased representation improves visibility and influence 2) minority politicians can act as role models 3) minority representatives can introduce and support equality measures 4) representation can encourage broader political participation

The President is the most powerful branch of government rather than the Supreme Court or Congress (essay)

1) executive orders allow unilateral action 2) Presidents appoint Supreme Court justices 3) Presidents dominate foreign policy 4) veto powers influence legislation 5) Presidents possess national leadership and visibility

The President is NOT the most powerful branch of government rather than the Supreme Court or Congress (essay)

1) Congress controls legislation 2) Congress can override vetoes 3) the Supreme Court is independent 4) judicial review can limit presidential actions 5) constitutional change requires broader support

Congress has protected civil and constitutional rights more effectively than the Supreme Court (essay)

1) Congress can pass rights-based legislation 2) Congress can respond to changing social conditions 3) elected representatives can modernise legal protections 4) legislation can strengthen judicial decisions

The Supreme Court has protected civil and constitutional rights more effectively than Congress (essay)

1) judicial review protects constitutional rights 2) the Court can act independently of politics 3) constitutional interpretation can expand rights protections 4) the Court's primary role is safeguarding the Constitution

Federal-state relationship with the Constitution

1) federal law is supreme over state law in cases of conflict

2) federal government cannot reduce state powers without consent

3) states exercise significant influence over citizens' lives

4) federal government provides resources to states

5) powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states and people

6) states may pursue policies different from the federal government

Limits to state power

1) federal mandates can require states to follow national policies

2) federal funding can influence state behaviour

3) federal government regulates interstate commerce

4) the Supreme Court can limit state actions

Impact of Constitution on US government: positive

1) judicial review prevents governments exceeding their powers

2) separation of powers promotes representation and distributes power

3) checks and balances prevent excessive concentration of power

4) constitutional change requires broad support

5) constitutional rights and liberties are protected

Impact of Constitution on US government: negative

1) unclear division of powers can create conflict

2) electoral arrangements may not reflect majority opinion

3) checks and balances can produce gridlock

4) checks may be weaker under unified government

5) Supreme Court can be criticised as ideological and undemocratic

Structure of Congress

1) bicameral legislature

2) consists of the Senate and House of Representatives

Congressional elections

1) House members are directly elected for short terms

2) Senators are directly elected for longer terms with staggered elections

3) elections determine representation in Congress

4) elections determine party control of each chamber

5) Senate provides equal representation for states

Supermajority in Congress

1) required for major constitutional and legislative actions

2) requires more than a simple majority

3) used for actions such as constitutional amendments and impeachment trials