Sports Science Option A

Training

Training

Performing exercise in an organized manner on a regular basis with a specific goal in mind.

Overtraining

When an athlete attempts to do more training than he/she is able to physically or mentally tolerate. Results in a number of symptoms that are highly individualized.

Overreaching

Transient overtraining

Indicators of Overtraining

Changes in resting HR, chronic muscle soreness, reduced immune function and frequent upper respiratory tract infections, sleep disturbance, fatigue, decreased appetite, sudden and unexplained decrease in performance.

Methods of Training

Flexibility Training: increase range of motion.

Strength and Resistance Training: resistance against muscle contraction to increase size and/ or power.

Circuit Training: combining resistance and aerobic exercise to increase overall conditioning.

Interval Training: maximal intensity interspersed with low intensity work for recovery. Flexible by changing duration, rest , or number of intervals.

Plyometrics: fast, powerful, short-duration exercise to improve power and force; rapid stretching followed by rapid contraction.

Continuous Training: period of exercise without rest; most successful to improve VO2 Max.

Fartlek Training: combination of continuous and interval training; random and spontaneous bouts of increased intensity without a strict routine.

Cross-Training: using different techniques to improve overall performance.

Periodization

Preparation (pre-season): 3-6 months. General preparation phase- basic fitness and conditioning.Specific preparation phase- focus shifts to preparing for the competitive season and is more specific to the skill needed for the season. Competition: no large gains in fitness, but rather a focus on maintenance with improvement on sport specific skills and technique. Transition (post-season): 3-4 weeks. Recover mentally and physically from the season while maintaining an acceptable level of activity (different from their normal routine) before beginning Preparation Phase.

Macrocycle

Entire year training program.

Mesocycle

Specific block of training designed to achieve a specific goal that fits into one of the three phases.

Microcycle

Weekly training program that forms the foundation of long-term goals. Includes training and rest periods that occur within a week but contribute to overall goal.

Relationship Between Cellular Metabolism and the Production of Heat

The energy liberated from dietary nutrients through reactions occurring in in metabolism results in both heat production and the conservation of energy within the compound ATP.

Range for Core Body Temperature

The normal core body temperature of a healthy, resting adult human being is stated to be at 37.0 degrees celsius. Though the body temperature measured on an individual can vary based on where the reading is taken. The body temperature is lower in the morning, due to the rest the body received, and higher at night after a day of muscular activity and after food intake.

Thermoregulation

Conduction: Involves skin contact with an object of a different temperature. The body will lose temperature when in contact with colder surfaces. The body will increase in temperature when in contact with warmer surfaces

Thermoregulation 2

Convection: Body temperature is influenced by the flow of air across the skin. In cold climates, strong air currents are a serious threat. This is commonly known as "wind chill". This creates an increase in the rate of heat loss by convection and conduction caused by wind.

Thermoregulation 3

Radiation: Describes the gain or loss of heat to the surrounding atmosphere. If the atmosphere is cooler than the body, the body will lose heat. If the atmosphere is warmer than the body, the body will increase in temperature.

Thermoregulation 4

Evaporation: Is the most important avenue for heat loss from the body. As sweat evaporates from the skin, a cooling effect is achieved thus releasing heat from the body.

Sweat

Provides moisture which evaporates from the skin surface to try to maintain homeostasis. Formed through the filtration of plasma and excreted through pores in the skin. Mostly water with some sodium and chloride and a low concentration of potassium. The body's major way of getting rid of excess body heat, which is produced by metabolism and working muscles. The amount of sweat produced depends upon air temperature and the level of physical activity. Individuals vary greatly in their capacity to sweat. (hyperhidrosis & hypohidrosis)

Exercise in the Heat

Heat-related disorders include heat cramps, heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Because of their relatively large body surface area and immature sweat response, infants, children and young adolescents are more susceptible to complications associated with exercise performed in heat and cold.

Prevention of Heat Related Illness

Acclimatize in similar temperature and/or humidity to the competition environment prior to the sports competition. Wear lightweight, loose-fitting clothing during competition. Avoid lengthy warm-up periods on the day of the competition. Know sweat rate and the amount of fluid that they should drink. Ensure that acclimatization training allows for frequent hydration. Hydrate to ensure that body weight is within 1 % of normal body weight during the day of the competition. Learn how to monitor urine color with reference to hydration status.

Heat & Humidity

The body's temperature regulation mechanisms might not function effectively in hot and humid conditions, hyperthermia can result. Sweat does not evaporate and cool as easily due to the humidity. Hyperthermia is a serious condition in which core body temperature has risen dangerously high. It is characterised by confusion, hot skin, headache, nausea and, in severe cases, by collapse and coma.

Response to Prolonged Exercise in Heat

Cardiovascular response: skin arterioles dilate to allow heat in blood to be lost by radiation to cool body. Energy metabolism: the reduced muscle blood flow in high temperatures results in increased glycogen breakdown in the muscle and higher levels of muscle and blood lactate in comparison to the same exercise performed in colder environments. Sweating.

Physiological Adaptations

Performing training sessions in similar environmental conditions (heat and humidity) for 5 to 10 days results in total heat acclimatization. Initially, the intensity of training should be reduced to avoid heat-related problems in these conditions. Changes include: Increased plasma volume, increased sweat response, reduced rate of muscle glycogen utilization.

Surface Area to Body Mass Ratio

The body surface area is directly related to the heat exchange between the body and the environment. Heat transfer between the body and the environment is related to the exposed surface area. Tall, heavy individuals have a small body surface area to body mass ratio which makes them less susceptible to hypothermia. When the air temperature is lower than skin temperature, individuals with a greater body surface area relative to mass have a difficult time maintaining normal body temperature in general, but should reduce heat storage more effectively during exercise. When the air temperature is higher than skin temperature, a higher body surface area-to-body mass ratio acts disadvantageously by absorbing heat from the environment. The processes of sweat, evaporation, and convection eliminate body heat at the skin surface.

Response to Cold

Shivering- involuntary, rhythmic muscle contractions that produce mechanical energy to generate heat. Non-shivering thermogenesis- a cold-induced increase in heat production from the sympathetic nervous system acting to increase the cellular metabolic rate in skeletal muscle and other tissues. Peripheral vasoconstriction- skin arterioles constrict diverting blood and the heat it carries to internal organs to raise/ maintain body temperature.

Physiological Responses to Exercise in the Cold

Even though the main source of energy when shivering is lipids (fats), the added energy requirements of shivering increase muscle glycogen breakdown during exercise. Lower heart rate and increased stroke volume during exercise in the cold are necessary to maintain cardiac output. This may be the result of vasoconstriction of superficial arterioles that increase central blood volume.

Swimming in Cold Water

During cold-water immersion, humans generally lose body heat and become hypothermic at a rate proportional to the difference in temperature and the duration of exposure. The effect of cold water on body heat loss is increased because of greater convective heat loss. At high swimming speeds, the metabolic rate of the swimmer may compensate for the increased heat loss.

Health Risks of Exercising in the Cold

Frostbite: occurs when the skin and body tissues are exposed to cold temperature for a prolonged period of time. Symptoms include pins and needles feeling followed by numbness, skin that is hard and pale, the area may ache or throb, and lack of sensation. As the area thaws, the flesh becomes red and very painful. Hypothermia: low body temperature (34-35 degrees Celsius). Symptoms include uncontrolled shivering, slurred speech, stumbling, and drowsiness.

Precautions in the Cold

The principal barrier is clothing, the amount of insulation offered by which is measured in a unit called a clo. Generally each 0.6 cm of clothing adds 1 clo of insulation. Overdressing during exercise also enhances heat loss. In extremely cold conditions, exposed skin on the hands and face should also be covered. Cold, dry air can induce bronchoconstriction and induce a cough

Ergogenic Aids

Any substance or phenomenon that improves an athlete's performance.

Placebo Effect

A positive effect on performance when an athlete thinks an ergogenic aid is beneficial.

5 Classes of Banned Non-Nutritional Ergogenic Aids

Anabolic steroids, hormones and related substances, diuretics and masking agents, beta blockers, and stimulants. Benefits may include improvement in both anaerobic and aerobic performance, increase muscle mass and strength, provide faster recovery between training sessions and from injury.

Why Substances are Banned

Moral obligation- considered cheating and puts other participants in the position of using them as well in order to remain competitive. Safety concern- the harmful effects of long-term use of ergogenic aids will be outlined next and much is not yet known.

Erythropoietin

Hormone that stimulates red blood cell production by stimulating red bone marrow cells. Increases hemoglobin concentrations. Potential benefits: increase in endurance performance, increased red blood cells, increased oxygen uptake and transport, and improved aerobic capacity as it removes carbon dioxide from tissues. Harmful effects: Increased blood viscosity, increased clotting tendency, heart attack , and thrombosis.

Anabolic Steroids

Class of substances that initiate or assist the process of building up the amount and/ or size of tissues in the body. Potential benefits: Increase muscle mass, strength and/ or power, recover faster from exercise and train more often, lower body fat, and improved endurance. Harmful effect: Heart problems and liver problems, reduced natural production of hormones, oily skin and acne, and altered mental state.

Beta Blockers

Class of substances that block the influence of adrenaline. Potential benefits: Improved precision and accuracy and reduced anxiety. Harmful effects: Bronchospasms in asthma sufferers, cardiac failure if pre-existing heart condition, hypoglycemia from increased insulin production, and low heart rate and blood pressure.

Caffeine

Central nervous system stimulant, having the effect of temporarily warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness. Potential benefit: Improved endurance and alertness. Harmful effects: Nervousness, insomnia. tremors, and heart arrhythmia.

Diuretics

Substances that increase the removal of water by increased urination.
Potential benefits: Masking agent, weight control for sports with weight classes, physical appearance to "look the part" in bodybuilding or gymnastics. Harmful effects: Reduced thermoregulation, fatigue, cramps and soreness, and nausea.