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nonverbal communication
communication without words (facial expression, tone, gestures, body positions, touch, eye gaze)
encoded
expressed
decoded
interpreted
nonverbal expressions of pride are…
universal
The nonverbal behaviors that are considered appropriate or normative…
vary by cultureand can influence social interactions.
Rule, Ambady, & Hallett (2009)
research supported the hypothesis that from facial features, a woman’s sexual orientation could be determined.
thin slice judgement
is the ability to make quick assessments about others based on brief observations of their behavior.
impressions tend to be _____ over time
stable
primacy effect
what we learn first about someone impacts how we interpret things we learn about them later on
trait schemas
mental shortcuts for sets of traits that we believe “go together”
ex: halo effect
belief perseverance
tendency to stick with an initial judgement even in the face of new info that should make us reconsider that judgement
cognitive dissonance
discomfort when we have two conflicting beliefs/attitudes
natural desire to avoid/resolve dissonance when it occurs
attributions
explanations for a behavior or outcome
internal attribution
this person’s behavior/outcomes are because of something about this person, such as attitude, character, or personality
external attribution
this person’s outcomes/behavior is because of something about the situation they are in (most people would respond the same way/get the same outcome in that situ
fundamental attribution error
overestimate the extent to which others’ behavior is due to internal factors AND underestimate the extent to which others’ behavior is due to external factors
Castro Essay Experiment demonstrates…
Fundamental attribution error
in the Castro Essay experiment, what happened when P’s learned that the essay writer chose which position to write about?
Ps assumed the essay position reflected the writer’s true attitude
What happened when Ps learned that the essay writer had no choice in their position?
Ps still assumed the essay position reflected the writer’s true attitude
Why is internal attribution our default?
It is easy, occurs quickly with little effort
2 step attribution process
we first make an internal attribution for behavior and only after that do we think about possible external/situational causes for the behavior
Self serving bias in attributions
we tend to attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors
White privilege
unearned advantages that White people get simply because they are White
Why are white people threatened by the idea of White privilege?
because it is difficult for white people to think that they might be ignorant or privileged
Motivations that lead to self serving attributes
self-esteem motive
self presentation motive (make a good impression, gain others’ acceptance)
Cognitive processes that lead to self-serving attributions
positive outcomes → consistent w/ self view → internal attribution
negative outcomes → inconsistent w/ self view → external attribution
bias blind spot
we tend to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases than we are
cultural differences in explaining success (self-serving bias)
individualist cultures tend to attribute success to the individual
collectivist cultures tend to attribute success to those around the individual
Groups must include…
interaction and interdependence
interaction
all members within a group interact with each other
interdependence
shared needs and goals such that the members influence each other
functions of groups
accomplish goals that would be hard to accomplish alone
satisfy human need for belonging
satisfy human desire to be distinctive/special
help define our self-concept
social facilitation
the presence of other people improves individual performance when compared to doing the task alone
Simple tasks in front of an audience
social facilitation (well-learned, dominant or basic response required)
complex tasks in front of an audience
social interference (novel/new, non-dominant or complicated response required)
social interference
the presence of other people hinders individual performance compared to when doing the task alone
Why are complex tasks harder to do in front of others?
Heightens arousal, concern with being evaluated
Performance in a group study 1 - results
when participants knew that their individual responses were not being counted, they put in less work overall than when their individual contributions were being counted.
Social loafing
when people are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated they tend to perform worse (compared to when alone)
Performance in group study 2 - results
external motivation (prize) increased contribution in both the “group ideas tallied” condition and the “individual ideas tallied” condition.
deindividuation
when surrounded by others, an individual may adopt thoughts and actions of the group and lose individual identity
power
the ability to control one’s own outcomes as well as the outcomes of others
behaviors in high power
more “approach” behaviors (goal driven behaviors, less concerned with others’ evaluation, can lead to rash decision making)
low power behaviors
more “inhibition” behaviors (restrained behavior, careful in making judgements/decisions, concerned w/ evaluation from others)
Power and perspective taking study - results
participants who wrote a story about a time when they were in power were more likely to draw a self-oriented E than those who had to write a story where they had to submit to someone else - consistent w/ hypothesis
power and empathy
more power = less likely to empathize with others
power and stereotypes
more power = more likely to rely on stereotypes rather than getting to know others individually
groups tend to focus on ________ information, which can lead to ineffective problem solving.
shared
shared information bias most likely to arise when:
there is a desire to reach closure quickly
people want their contributions to be accepted by group mems
individuals within the group are encouraged to be competitive rather than cooperative
Group motives and shared information bias study - results
when groups are asked to come to a joint decision, share rate was significantly higher. when groups were asked to compete against each other, far less information was shared.
Groupthink
when maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
desire to be accepted by group overrides rational decisionmaking
illusion of consensus
since no one is disagreeing with the group or paying attention to dissenting views, it seems like the group is in total agreement
combatting groupthink
seeking outside opinions from people not in the group
seek anonymous opinions
assign a “devils advocate”
discussions within like-minded groups creating more extreme attitudes study - results
people assume their attitude was strong all along, not impacted by the group
group polarization occurs when…
individuals are exposed to new persuasive arguments aligned with the initial attitude
there is a desire to be accepted by the group
stereotyping
cognitive - associations between a group and particular traits (often unconscious/automatic)
prejudice
emotional - negative feelings towards other groups
Discrimination
behavioral - treating people differently/worse based on their group membership
stereotypes are mental _________ and often come at the expense of _________.
shortcuts, accuracy
Stereotype Content Model
warmth and competence scales
where do stereotypes come from?
observing how others are treated
observing what others do
media portrayals
stereotypes often encourage us to _________ differences _________ groups and _____________ differences __________ groups.
underestimate, within, overestimate, between
Social identity threat
feeling of threat experienced when someone perceives that others are evaluating them as a member of their group rather than as an individual
Stereotype threat
a type of social identity threat where target worries about the fact that they are going to be evaluated as their stereotypes - desire to disprove negative stereotypes about their group
race salience study - results
black students performed much worse on a test where they had to indicate their race beforehand
stereotype threat → anxiety/rumination/distraction → impaired performance
combatting stereotype threat
removing the weight of the stereotype, making salient another identity that does not carry negative stereotypes, self affirmation, learning about social identity threat
positive stereotype study - results
increase in negative feelings in asian american students when they were told to do a specific problem because “asians are good at math”
negative stereotype perception
how much do you think this person also thinks you are… subservient, spineless, gullible, whiny, fussy, emotional
descriptive stereotypes
how most people in a group supposedly think, feel, and behave/what characteristics they have
prescriptive stereotypes
how people in a group supposedly SHOULD think, feel, and behave/what characteristics they SHOULD have
how does it feel to be the target of a descriptive stereotype?
creates pressure to fit a certain image
often easier to stay within bounds of expectations
how does it feel to be the target of prescriptive stereotypes?
demand conformity with certain thoughts, feelings, behaviors
limiting options of the stereotyped group
most of us think of discrimination as…
overt, intentional, explicit
microaggressions
everyday slights, insults, putdowns, invalidations, or offensive behaviors that people experience in everyday interactions
inaction as a form of discrimination
failing to represent/value the experiences of people with minoritized identities
academic role model study - results
when native american students had a native american role model, they tended to feel a greater sense of belonging
institutional (structural) discrimination
differential treatment based on group membership that is established (accepted as normal; ingrained) in the everyday practices or policies of organizations
mitigating institutional discrimination
policy changes (DEI trainings, objective and transparent evaluation criteria)
social identity
part of a person’s self-concept based on their identification with a particular social group
impact how we perceive and treat people within and outside of those identities
ingroup bias
we tend to favor people within our own group and give ingroup members special preferences compared to people in other groups
outgroup homogeneity
perception that individuals in the outgroup are more similar to each other than they really are, and more similar to each other than members of the ingroup are to each other(“they” are all alike)
the contact hypothesis
the prediction that social interactions between social groups will reduce prejudice/discrimination
challenges with intergroup contact
lack of opportunity
mistrust between groups
can increase hostility if relations between groups are already hostile/violent
deep dive topic
stereotype threat in the context of women in a male-dominated field
findings of the ambient identity cues study
room with items congruent with stereotypical computer science majors made women indicate less interest in comp sci overall as compared to in a room with items incongruent with stereotypical comp sci majors.
Whistling Vivaldi strategy
a tactic where someone from a marginalized group consciously performs a behavior associated with a positive stereotype (like whistling classical music, specifically Vivaldi) to counteract negative stereotypes about their group when in a situation where they might be judged based on those stereotypes, essentially trying to signal their positive identity and alleviate anxieties in others around them
why is the whistling vivaldi strategy not a good strategy to combat stereotype threat?
it is not fair to ask people to change how they behave because they are the target of a stereotype. it can be superficial and exacerbate anxiety associated with the stereotype