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Psychodynamic perspective
focuses on the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences.
Behavioral Perspective (Behaviorism)
believes that psychology should be an objective science that focuses on studying observable behaviors without referencing the mental process. behavioral observation.
Sociocultural Perspective
Focuses on a person’s experiences and influences in their life to better understand how culture shapes individuals. Provides insight into different behaviors across different cultures.
Humanistic Perspective
Emphasizes our potential as humans to grow as individuals. Emphasizes free will and a person’s desire to move towards self-actualization.
Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on how we as individuals interpret, process, and remember information. Emphasizes how people process and store information and how this influences their behavior
Biological Perspective
Seeks to understand the links between our biological and physiological processes. Focuses on the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and nervous system’s role in influencing thoughts and behaviors.
Biopsychosocial Perspective
Focuses on the interconnectedness of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior and mental processes.
Evolutionary Perspective
Looks at how natural selection and adaptation influence behavior. proposed by Darwin who argues that our behaviors and bodies were shaped through natural selection.
Cultural Norms, Expectations, and Circumstances
Things that must be considered when looking at experiments on groups or individuals.
Cultural Norms
Shared rules and guidelines within a community that dictate appropriate and acceptable behaviors in society.
Cultural Expectations
Anticipated behaviors and roles individuals are expected to fulfill based on cultural norms.
Cultural Circumstances
The situations in which individuals find themselves in often including socioeconomic factors historical events and the person's geographical location.
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to seek out information that aligns with our point of view while at the same time dismissing information that challenges our beliefs. Leads to polarized thinking and prevents individuals from considering information that challenges their perspective
Hindsight Bias
Tendency to think that one could have anticipated the outcome of an event or experiment after it already occurred. Information is less surprising once you know it.
Overconfidence Bias
Tendency to overestimate one's knowledge the likelihood of being correct or an individual's ability to perform certain tasks
Psychological concepts being applied inappropriately.
Has significant ethical, social, and practical implications for misdiagnosing a mental condition.
Relying on outdated stereotypes could lead to ineffective or harmful treatments
Repeat: Relying on outdated stereotypes could lead to ineffective or harmful treatments
Experimental Methodology
A systematic approach that is designed to be carried out under controlled conditions with the goal being to test a hypothesis and establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Non-Experimental Methodology
Used in research where a controlled experiment is not possible or ethical. Describes behavior but cannot explain it and cannot be used to establish a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Case Study
Examines an individual group of people event or situation to provide detailed information and insight into the topic of Interest
Hawthrone Effect
When the subject of a study alters their behavior due to them being aware that they are being observed. Common problem in case studies
Correlational Study
Allow researchers to gain insight into the relationship between two variables and can help determine the strength of the relationship between the variables. DO NOT show cause and effect.
Third variable problem
When an outside variable a third variable impacts the study. Variables that were not accounted for when creating the parameters of the study. Common problem in correlation studies.
Meta-analysis
Statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to reach a conclusion.
Naturalistic Observation
when researchers observe individuals in a real-world setting. To try to gather authentic data by observing people in their environments.
Hypothesis
A specific testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.
Theory
Often based on tested hypotheses; supported by data from research that has been completed and explains a question thought or phenomenon. Allow us to make predictions about how things are and what might happen in the future.
Falsifiable Hypothesis
A hypothesis must be able to be proven wrong.
Operational Definition
Outline the exact procedures used in the study and outlines how the variables are measured or manipulated in the study. Allows for other researchers to replicate the study under the exact same conditions.
Independent Variable
What is being manipulated or controlled by the researcher.
Dependent Variable
The outcome that is being measured.
Confounding Variables
Factors other than the independent variable that could impact the dependent variable. Variables that the researcher was not able to remove from the experiment or study.
Population
The entire group that the research is studying
Sample
The selected group of individuals in a population that are selected to represent the population in the study
Random Sampling
When each individual in a population has an equal chance of participating in the study
Stratified Sampling
When the population is divided into different subcategories and a random sample is taken from each subcategory
Representative Sample
The sample group in the study represents all the different people in the population
Sampling Bias
When the sample group that is representing the population in the study does not represent the entire population accurately
Convenience Sampling
When individuals are selected to participate in a study based on their availability
Generalizability
The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to the larger population
Experimental Group
the group in an experiment that receives the independent variable
Control Group
The group in an experiment that receives a placebo
Placebo
Something that is as close as possible to the independent variable but is missing a key component. Prevents participants from knowing they have not actually received the independent variable.
Random Assignment
When participants are randomly assigned to be part of the control or experimental group
Random Selection
When participants are randomly selected to be part of a study
Quasi-Experiement
An experiment that does not include the random assignment of participants. Cannot determine cause and effect.
Single-blind Procedure
When the participants in the study do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group. Helps prevent the social desirability bias
Social Desirability Bias
When participants skew their answers to create a more favorable impression of themselves
Placebo Effect
When an individual's physical or mental state improves after taking a placebo. Happens because the individual believes they are taking the real drug or substance
Double-blind Procedure
When both the participants and researchers do not know who is in the experimental group or controlled group. Helps counter experimenter bias and social desirability bias.
Experimenter Bias
Occurs when the researcher’s expectations preferences or beliefs influence the outcome of the study
Qualitative Measures
Collect non-numerical data. Provides detailed descriptive insights into participants thoughts feelings and behaviors. Produce information that is descriptive and subjective
Structured Interviews
Where researchers ask open-ended questions that allow the participant to provide an in-depth answer about their perspective and experiences
Quantitative Measures
Collect numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to identify different relationships, patterns, and differences. produce information that is more objective and focuses on measuring variables in a numerical form
Likert Scale
Has participants rate their agreement with statements on a scale to provide the researcher with quantifiable data on the participant's attitudes or opinions
Informed Consent
Participants understand the necessary information to make an informed decision as well as the risks of the study and are free to choose whether or not they want to participate
Informed Assent
when the participant is not legally able to provide full consent on their own. The participant as well as their guardian must agree to the study.
Ethical Studies
Researchers must make sure they create a positive environment for the subjects where the participants can trust the researcher. The study has integrity, transparency, and the participants are debriefed at the end of the study.
American Psychological Association (APA)
Established as the governing board to study behavior. Created the first ethical committee to create standards that all psychological research must follow
Institutional Review Boards (IRB)
Created to protect human participants all colleges and universities use it to conduct any experiments or research studies. Look at proposed research studies that have human participants if they do not believe that people participating in the study are being protected they will reject the study
Institution for Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
Regulates and oversees Animal Care and research teaching and testing with animals
Peer Review
Where other experts in the field assess a study’s methodology, data, and conclusions before it is published
Replication
Other researchers conduct the study again. Allows others to check the original findings and verify the results
