Understanding Social Perception and Behavior in Psychology

Person Perception

Forming impressions of ourselves and others.

Actor-Observer Bias

Attributing others' behavior to traits, not situations.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Underestimating situational influence on behavior.

Social Comparison

Evaluating ourselves by comparing to others.

Self-Esteem Impact

Social comparisons can harm self-concept.

Prejudice

Unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group.

Explicit Prejudice

Overt negative attitudes towards a group.

Implicit Prejudice

Unconscious negative attitudes affecting behavior.

Discrimination

Action based on prejudiced attitudes.

Ingroup Bias

Favoring one's own group over others.

Just-World Phenomenon

Belief that the world is fair.

Scapegoating

Blaming others to protect emotional well-being.

Cognitive Roots of Prejudice

Forming categories and remembering vivid cases.

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

Small request leads to larger request compliance.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Tension from conflicting attitudes and actions.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Fast judgments using attention-getting cues.

Central Route Persuasion

Thoughtful responses based on evidence and arguments.

Social Contagion

Unconscious imitation of others' behaviors.

Chameleon Effect

Mimicking others' expressions and moods.

Negative Emotions in Prejudice

Feelings contributing to prejudiced attitudes.

Stereotypes

Beliefs about characteristics of a group.

Social Inequalities

Divisions that contribute to prejudiced attitudes.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior to align with group norms.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.

Informational Social Influence

Accepting others' opinions as valid information.

Milgram's Obedience Experiments

Study showing obedience to authority can lead to harm.

Legitimate Authority Figure

Perceived authority increases likelihood of obedience.

Social Control

Influence of societal norms on individual behavior.

Personal Control

Individual's ability to influence their own behavior.

Minority Influence

Small group swaying majority opinion through consistency.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

Reduced effort in group tasks due to shared responsibility.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in group settings.

Group Polarization

Strengthening of beliefs through group discussion.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making.

Cultural Norms

Accepted behaviors within a specific culture.

Tight Cultures

Cultures with strict adherence to norms.

Loose Cultures

Cultures allowing greater variability in behavior.

Aggression (Psychological Definition)

Behavior intended to harm physically or emotionally.

Cultural Transmission

Passing behaviors and values across generations.

Group Interaction

Collaboration that can enhance or hinder decision-making.

Prestigious Institution

Reputable organization that can influence obedience.

Depersonalization

Seeing others as less human, increasing obedience.

Self-restraint

Ability to control impulses in social situations.

Aggression

Behavior resulting from biological and experiential interactions.

Frustration-Aggression Principle

Frustration leads to aggressive responses.

Role Model Influence

Observing aggression can reinforce aggressive behavior.

Media Violence

Exposure provides scripts for aggressive behavior.

Mere Exposure Effect

Increased exposure enhances liking of stimuli.

Companionate Love

Affection that develops from passionate love over time.

Altruism

Unselfish concern for the well-being of others.

Bystander Effect

Reduced likelihood of helping when others are present.

Social Exchange Theory

Helping behavior maximizes personal benefits and minimizes costs.

Reciprocity Norm

Expectation to return favors in social interactions.

Social-Responsibility Norm

Expectation to help those dependent on us.

Social Traps

Conflict arises from pursuing individual self-interests.

Mirror-Image Perceptions

Each side views the other as untrustworthy.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that promote cooperation and peace.

GRIT Strategy

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction.

Personality

Characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Focus on unconscious motivations and childhood experiences.

Humanistic Theory

Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.

Trait Theory

Personality defined by stable characteristics and behaviors.

Social-Cognitive Theory

Personality shaped by social interactions and cognitive processes.

Physical Attractiveness

Influences social opportunities and perceptions.

Similarity Principle

Similar attitudes and interests increase interpersonal attraction.

Psychodynamic theories

View behavior as interaction of conscious and unconscious.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis and unconscious mind theory.

Unconscious mind

Houses unacceptable thoughts and feelings.

Free association

Technique to explore the unconscious mind.

Id

Pleasure-seeking impulses in personality.

Ego

Reality-oriented executive part of personality.

Superego

Internalized conscience and moral standards.

Anxiety

Result of conflict between id and superego.

Defense mechanisms

Ego's unconscious strategies to cope with anxiety.

Repression

Basic defense mechanism, blocking unacceptable thoughts.

Neo-Freudians

Followers who emphasized conscious mind and social motives.

Childhood experiences

Influence adult personality and attachment patterns.

Evolutionary history

Shapes universal predispositions in human behavior.

Contemporary psychologists

Critique Freud's theories, emphasize lifelong development.

Repression criticism

Concept lacks scientific support and testability.

Unconscious processing

Information processing outside of conscious awareness.

Schemas

Mental frameworks controlling perceptions and interpretations.

Priming

Activation of associations influencing perception.

Implicit memories

Unconscious recollections of learned skills.

Projective tests

Assess inner dynamics through ambiguous stimuli.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Valid test revealing implicit motives over time.

Rorschach inkblot test

Low reliability test, used for suggestive leads.

Humanistic Psychology

Focuses on personal growth and self-realization.

Abraham Maslow

Proposed hierarchy of needs for motivation.

Hierarchy of Needs

Motivational theory with five levels of needs.

Self-Actualization

Realizing one's full potential and capabilities.

Self-Transcendence

Going beyond self-interests for broader goals.

Carl Rogers

Emphasized acceptance, genuineness, and empathy in growth.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance without conditions, crucial for personal growth.

Self-Concept

Central feature of personality, shaped by experiences.

Growth-Promoting Environment

Conditions fostering personal development and self-acceptance.

Assessment Methods

Interviews, conversations, and questionnaires to evaluate self.

Life Story Approach

Narrative detailing unique life history for assessment.

Positive Psychology

Scientific study of human strengths and well-being.