Policing Final Exam- Jay Kohl Rutgers

1st amendment

freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and religion

4th amendment

• Right against unreasonable searches or seizures.

• Warrants are issued only with probable cause particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be seized

5th amendment

• Self incrimination

• Right against double jeopardy • Right to a grand jury

• If the government takes your property for public use, they have to pay you for it.

6th amendment

• Right to a speedy trial: The government can’t make you wait a super long time before your trial happens.

• Impartial Jury: The people deciding your case must be fair and not already believe you’re guilty.

• To be informed of charges: You have the right to know exactly what the government says you did wrong.

• Assistance of counsel (lawyer) & confrontation: You get a lawyer to help defend you, and you’re allowed to see and question the people who accuse you.

8th amendment

• No excessive bail or fines

• No cruel or unusual punishment

14th amendment

• Equal Protection: Government has to treat everyone fairly, no matter who they are.

• Due Process: Government must follow fair rules before taking away someone’s freedom, rights, or property.

• Citizenship: Anyone born in the United States is automatically a U.S. citizen.

warrant requirement

• Obtain a search warrant prior to any search & seizure

search warrant

• Order from a court, issued by a judge, authorizing & direction the police to search, & directing the police to bring that property to court.

exclusionary rule

• Rule that provides that otherwise admissible evidence cannot be used in a criminal trial if it was the result of illegal police conduct

• Applied to states (Mapp v. Ohio)

exceptions to warrant requirement

1. Field Interrogations → Stop & Frisk (Terry v. Ohio)

2. Search Incident to Arrest → Search defendant & area immediately around defendant (Chimel v. California)

3. Cars → "Carrol Doctrine" (Carroll v. U.S.)

weeks vs. US

• Created the exclusionary rule. • Courts could not admit illegally seized evidence in federal prosecutions.

Mapp vs. Ohio

• Exclusionary Rule applies to all law enforcement agents in states

• Constitutional rights are no longer an empty promise

chimel vs. california

• Searching defendant & area immediately around defendant for the purpose of preventing injury to officer & destruction of evidence.

• Arms Reach Doctrine

arms reach doctrine

• Search defendant and the area around them

terry vs. ohio

• Allowed the police to stop and search a suspect if he has reasonable suspicion that the person has committed a crime.

• Stop and Frisk

carrol vs. U.S

• Police may stop & search a vehicle without a warrant if there is probable cause to believe that the vehicle is carrying individuals or articles that offend the law

• "Carrol Doctrine"

brown vs. Mississippi

• Ruled that a confession extracted by police violence cannot be entered as evidence & violates the Due Process Clause.

• Beatings to obtain confessions are "inadmissible"

miranda rights

• List of rights that police in the US must read to suspects in custody before interrogating/questioning them.

fighting corruption

• Internal Affairs Unit

• Random Drug Testing

internal affairs unit

• Branch of police that receives & investigates complaints alleging violation of rules & policies on the part of officers

What is the primary function of a Rutgers' Community Service Officer (CSO)?

observe and report

who investigated rodney king case

christopher commission

NCIS (national crime information center)

• Operated by the FBI

• Nationwide computerized database of criminal justice information

AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System)

• Scans fingerprints electronically & plots the positions of their ridge characteristics, comparing them with prints in a database.

STRESS (Stop the Robberies Enjoy Safe Streets)STRESS (Stop the Robberies Enjoy Safe Streets)

• Reduces robberies by using decoy officers to attract and catch suspects.

VICAP (Violent Criminal Apprehension Program)

Contains information on unsolved homicides

mug shot imaging

digitizing pictures on computer to be retrieved at later time

technological enhancements

• NCIS

• VICAP

• AFIS

• STRESS

• Mug Shot Imaging

• Mini-Stations

• Enhanced 911 & computer aid dispatch systems

mini-stations

store fronts and projects

swat units

• Specialized police unit trained to handle the most dangerous & high-risk situations that regular officers are not equipped for

• Makes decisions on what to do, who to use, & how to do it (tactics)

• Do not make decisions on when they are used

private security services

• Business owners have duty to protect when there is a foreseeable rick of crime & they have failed to act

• Huge growth driven by duty to protect concerns of business & the law

• Claims arising out of civil claims & customers fear of crime

blue wall of silence

officers refusal to report officers misconduct

1983 suits

federal civil lawsuits against police violations/US Code

fleeing felon doctrine (common law)

• Allowed police (or even private citizens) to use deadly force to stop a fleeing felon if the person was escaping after committing a serious crime.

gardner vs. tennesse

police may not use deadly force to stop a fleeing suspect unless the officer has probable cause to believe the suspect poses a significant threat of death or serious physical harm to the officer or others

patrol deployment responsibilities

determine the number of unies needed (patrol cars to cover area)

design patrol beats(creat geographic areas that officers are assigned to making sure it is balanced and manageable

schedules to match variations in demand and units available (more officers when busier less when slow)

not involved in selection which officer or unit (deployment function does not decide which specific officer responds

kansas city study

• Major 1970s patrol study found that routine patrol had no impact on crime, fear of crime, or case outcomes.

• Led police to experiment with new strategies, since presence alone does not reduce crime.

• Most important factor in solving cases was the quality of information given to first responders.

• Study disproved the idea of police “omnipresence” as an effective crime-control method.

terrorism

• Unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or a segment thereof, in the furtherance of political or social objective.

domestic terrorism

• Groups or individuals who operate without foreign direction within the US & targets elements of the US government or citizens.

counterterrorism

• Efforts to combat against terrorism

• Major role of FBI

security survey

• Evaluates how well a location protects its most important asset: people.

• Focuses on three core elements:

1. Target Hardening

2. Vulnerability Assessment

3. Criticality Assessment

target heardening

• Making a location harder to attack through physical security measures.

• Ex. Strengthening locks,

major role of the FBI

• Protecting the US from foreign attack

• Protecting the US from foreign intelligence operations

• Protecting from cyber based crimes

• Proactive organizations

left wing

• Political ideas that prioritize social equality, expanding public support systems, and reducing inequality through government action.

• Ex. Supporting social welfare programs or Advocating for workers’ rights and labor protections

right wing

• Political ideas emphasizing individual freedom, limited government, traditional values, and maintaining established social or economic systems.

• Ex. Prioritizing free-market economics and low taxes or Favoring smaller government involvement in daily life

special interests

• Groups that focus on one specific issue or cause and work to influence laws, policies, or public opinion in favor of that cause. They do not represent the general public; they represent people who care strongly about a particular topic.

• Ex. Animal rights, environmental issues, anti-abortion advocates

serial killers

• Someone who kills two or more people in separate events, with a cooling-off period between each killing.

detectives

• Specialized police officers responsible for follow-up investigations, evidence collection, interviews, and case preparation.

surveillance

• Use of tools & technology

• Ex. GPS

differential response to calls

• Police respond differently depending on the type and severity of the call.

• High-priority emergencies get fast response; low-priority calls may get delayed or handled by phone/online.

• Helps departments with staffing or financial shortages manage limited resources.

• Used most when agencies are overwhelmed and cannot respond to every call the same way.

affirmative defense

• Allows the defendant to present evidence showing that the harm or condition was caused by something other than the defendant’s own negligence.

• Common in cases involving physicians or hospitals.

• Defendant admits the basic facts of the claim, but argues there is a legal reason they are not responsible.

community policing

• Policing philosophy focused on partnerships with the community, problem solving, and trust building rather than only responding to crime.

problem-solving policing

• Method that focuses on identifying recurring problems &addressing underlying causes, often using the SARA model.

strategic policing

• Uses modern, specialized, and data-driven tactics to address crime.

• Includes units like SWAT, gang units, drug task forces, and crime analysis teams.

• More proactive & intelligence-based than traditional patrol.

• Focuses on serious, repeat, or organized offenders.

1960s community relations

• Police departments shifted focus toward community relations in response to civil rights movements, urban unrest, and declining trust in police.

• This period emphasized improving police–community relationships, visibility, & communication, rather than changing the underlying structure of policing itself.

• Community relations focused on how police interact with the public, not how policing is organized or conducted operationally.

changes in police practices

• Shift away from:

1. Foot patrol → motorized patrol

2. Random routine patrol → directed patrol and strategic deployment

3. Reactive policing → problem-solving & community-based approaches

• This shift increased police mobility & response time, but reduced everyday contact with the community, leading to later efforts to reintroduce foot patrol & community engagement.

show-ups

• Identification process where witness is shown one suspect, usually shortly after a crime.

• Courts allow this mainly in emergency situations or when conducted soon after the crime

less reliable

line-ups

• Identification process where suspect is placed among other similar-looking individuals (fillers) for witness identification.

• More reliable than show-ups

photo arrays

showing witnesses set of pics to identify a suspect

used when live lineup is not practical

reliability depends on how the photos are selected and presented

public safety departments

• Integrated agency that combines multiple emergency & regulatory services under one organization.

• Ex. Police, fire, emergency medical services (EMS), emergency management, code enforcement, environmental health & safety, dispatch.

tort

civil wrong

wrongful act

omnipresence

• Belief that if police appear to be everywhere, crime will be deterred.

research shows it does not work

detective mystique

• Belief that detective work is glamorous, exciting, & dangerous.

research shows detective work is

• largely routine and tedious

• paperwork-intensive

• dependent more on info gathered by patrol officers than on detective skill alone

john edgar hoover

• Historical FBI director associated with an earlier era of policing focused on:

1. Bank robbery

2. Interstate commerce

bonaparte

originator of FBI

modus operandi (MO)

• Method of operation.

• Patterns & behaviors an offender uses to commit crimes, such as:

1. How the crime is carried out

2. Type of victim targeted

tools or tactics used

• Police use this to link crimes, identify suspects, & support investigations, especially in serial or repeat offenses.

CERT

• Program that trains community members to assist during emergencies before professional responders arrive.

• Members help with basic disaster response, support emergency management efforts, assist with evacuation, first aid, & information sharing

• They supports police, fire, & emergency management, but does not replace professional responders.

span of control

• Number of people or units one supervisor can effectively manage.

• Effective with 3-7 subordinates

All-Hazards Approach to Emergencies (Public Safety & Emergency Management)

• Planning & responding to all types of emergencies using the same basic framework, regardless of the cause.

• Includes natural disasters, terrorism, hazardous materials incidents, public health emergencies, mass casualty events.

• Public safety agencies & emergency management focus on common response needs (coordination, communication, command structure) rather than creating a separate plan for every possible threat.

community policing consortium

• National organization formed to promote & support community policing by providing training, research, technical assistance, and best practices to police agencies.

• Goal is to help departments build partnerships, use problem-solving, & improve police–community relations.

inventory search

• Administrative search conducted to list & safeguard the contents of lawfully seized property (such as a vehicle).

• Purposes are to protect the owner’s property, protect police from claims of theft or damage (accountability), protect officers from danger

patrol allocation

process of deciding how many officers, where, and when they are deployed

patient finger prints

visible prints left in substances like blood, paint, or dirt

plastic prints

three dimension prints left in soft materials like wax or clay

latent print

invisible prints caused when body oils of fingerprints adhere to the surface of an object

must be dusted and require development

foreseeability

refers to whether harm was reasonably predictable

duty to protect

legal obligation that may arise when harm is foreseeable and a special relationship exists

special needs searches

searches conducted for purposes beyond law enforcement, judged by reasonableness balancing

cost = wages

in policing and public safety budgeting, the largest cost is personnel wages and benefits including salaries, overtime, benefits

staffing decisions directly determine overall costs

types of public safety departments

• Police: law enforcement

• Fire: fire suppression and rescue

• EMS: medical emergencies

• Public Safety: combined police/fire/EMS

• Emergency Management: disaster coordination

• Communications: 911 and dispatch

mass murderers

• Killing of four or more victims at one location at a continuous time

• Ex. Active shooters at McDonalds, Virginia Tech, Sandy Hook

spree killer

kills 2 or more victims at more than one location no cooling off

foot patrol

method of deploying officers that gives them the responsibility of walking around a certain beat

best way to respond to emergencies

if you can ….. something, you have the ….

foresee

duty to protect

grand jury

group that determines whether probable cause exists to issue an indictment

indictment

formal criminal charge issued by a grand jury

formal charges

official accusations that begin prosecution and trigger the sixth amendment right to counsel

vulnerable assesment

• Identifying weak points that could be exploited & determining how easily a threat could succeed

critically assessment

determining which assets are most important and the impact if they are harmed, stolen, or disrupted, so protection efforts can be prioritized

due process clause

guarantees fairness in legal procedures and protects individuals from arbitrary government action

silver platter doctrine

allowed federal prosecutors to use illegally obtained evidence from state police; later rejected

fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine

evidence derived from an illegal search or seizure is also inadmissible

rochin vs. california

introduced the “shocks the conscience” standard for due process violations involving police conduct

exigent circumstances

• Emergency situations allowing warrantless searches, including preventing escape, harm, evidence destruction, hot pursuit, or rendering aid.

plain view doctrine

police may seize evidence without a warrant if it is clearly visible during lawful activity

interrogation

direct questioning or its functional equivalent that police should know is likely to elicit an incriminating response

miranda warnings

• Right to remain silent, statements may be used in court, right to an attorney, and appointment of counsel if indigent.

nix vs. williams

evidence is admissible if it would have been discovered lawfully anyway

created inevitable discovery

U.S vs. Leon

created the good faith exception

evidence obtained using a warrant later found invalid may still be admitted if police acted in good faith

uniform crime reports (UCR)

FBI compiled crime statistics based on police reports