Psychology Exam 1 2023

I'll be updating this as I go so don't be scared if there's only a few cards at first, I assure you there will be more

Nature (Heredity)

the transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring via genes at the time of conception

Nurture (Environment)

all the experiences, objects and events, which we are exposed to throughout our entire lifetime

‘Biological’ perspective - Nature vs Nurture argument

heredity primarily determines our psychological development

‘Behaviorist’ perspective - Nature vs Nurture argument

environment is responsible for determining what anyone could become, believes heredity has little to do with the development of psychological characteristics

Deprivation

the loss or withholding of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, love, etc.

Enrichment

the attempt to ensure that an environment (particularly that of a child) has intellectual, perceptual stimulation and that it is complex and original; allows for investigation

4 types of unresponsive care

1. occasional inattention
2. chronic under-stimulation
3. severe neglect in a family context
4. severe neglect in an institutional setting

occasional inattention

Children receive attention most of the time, but occasionally adults don’t respond. No harm to the child, and perhaps even some benefit; child can learn to self-sooth and explore their environment.

chronic under-stimulation

on a regular basis, children have less interaction with adults around them than is needed for healthy development. can show ‘catch-up’ when provided with an enrich

severe neglect in a family context

prolonged period of inattention and lack of responsiveness. often associated with not being taken care of properly (i.e. feeding, bathing, etc). Children at risk for significant developmental deficits that aren’t easily fixed.

severe neglect in an institutional setting

children living in poor institutional settings e.g. orphanages, ‘transitional care’

Serve

The child ‘serves’ by reaching out for interaction - with eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, babbling, or touch.

Return

A responsive caregiver will ‘return the serve’ by speaking back, playing peekaboo, or sharing a toy or a laugh.

Sensitive period

a period of time during development when a person (or animal) is more responsive (‘sensitive’) to certain types of environmental experiences or learning

within this period of time, we can most rapidly acquire a particular skill or characteristic

Learning after the sensitive period

we can still learn after the sensitive period has closed, but the learning process is less efficient

Critical period

A period in time in which a person (or animal) has heightened sensitivity to external stimuli that is compulsory for the development of a particular skill

Critical period example

Certain areas of the visual cortex are only capable of synapse formation during the early stages of development. Once the critical period has elapsed, the individual will have some visual impairment

Critical period vs sensitive period

If the appropriate experience does not occur during its critical period, then it can permanently and irreversibly affect development.

Critical periods have identifiable start and end times, thereby tending to start and end suddenly, rather than gradually (if at all) as do sensitive periods

Strengths of the Iowa Orphans study

* Reliable tests - IQ test (qualitative results)
* distinctive experimental and control groups
* provides evidence for the need of interventions
* Cause and effect

Limitations of the Iowa Orphans study

* Unethical
* Small sample size - generalizable
* Not able to replicate
* Cross-cultural
* Not necessarily a very rigorous design

Epigenetics

the study of factors other than genetics ones that control how and when each gene is expressed

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not evoke a response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Example of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Neutral Stimulus (NS) in Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Bell - before conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR) in Pavlov’s Dog Experiement

Salivating - before conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) in Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Meat

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Bell - after conditioning

Conditioned Response (CR)

salivating - after conditioning

Positive Punishment

adding something to decrease behavior

Negative Punishment

subtracting something to decrease behavior

Positive Reinforcement

adding something to increase behavior

Negative Reinforcement

subtracting something to incr

three-phase (ABC) model of operant conditioning

Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence

Antecedent in three-phase model of operant conditioning

the environmental stimulus that precedes the relevant behavior and indicates the consequence; ‘What happened before’

Behavior in three-phase model of operant conditioning

voluntary activity that has an effect on the environment; ‘What happens’

Consequence in three-phase model of operant conditioning

the environmental event that follows the behavior; ‘What happens after’

Behaviorism

the theory that psychology can be objectively studied through observable action

Operant conditioning

subject learns behavior by associating it with consequences

Classical conditioning

Subject learns to associate two unrelated stimuli with each other

operant conditioning theorist

B.F. Skinner

Classical conditioning theorist

Ivan Pavlov

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory steps

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation Reinforcement

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory explained

learning occurs through observation, imitation and modelling and is influenced by factors such as attention, motivation, attitudes and emotions.

Attention in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Learner pays attention in order to observed the modelled behaviour

Retention in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Learner mentally represents and retains what has been observed

Reproduction in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Depending on their physical capabilities, learner converts the mental representation into action

Motivation Reinforcement in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Learner must be motivated to reproduce. Reinforcement influences motivation to perform the observed behaviour

Examples of Attention influencers (Bandura’s Social Learning Theory)

* perceptual capabilities of the observer
* motivation and interest level of the observer
* the situation in which the behaviour is being observed
* the kinds of distractors that are present
* the characteristics of the model, such as attractiveness

Model attractiveness explained (Bandura’s Social Learning Theory)

In general, the greater similarity between the model and the observer, the higher status the model, and the more attractive and successful the model, the more likely we are to follow their example

Example of retention (Bandura’s Social Learning Theory)

Linking a visual image with a verbal description of the model’s actions

Types of reinforcement (Bandura’s Social Learning Theory)

External Reinforcement

Vicarious Reinforcement

Self-Reinforcement

External Reinforcement

comparable to learning by consequences

Vicarious Reinforcement

occurs indirectly by observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced without personally experiencing the reinforcement

Self-Reinforcement

occurs when we are reinforced by meeting certain standards of performance we set for ourselves

Self Efficacy

our belief in our ability to accomplish tasks and succeed in particular situations

4 main sources of self efficacy information

Performance Accomplishments (i.e. past experiences)

Vicarious Experience (i.e. modelling by others)

Social Persuasion (i.e. coaching and evaluative feedback)

Physiological and Emotional States

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Three Phase model of operant conditioning

Pavlov Dog experiment - Classical Conditioning

Associative Learning

when a subject links certain events, behaviours, or stimuli together in the process of conditioning

Cognition

our thoughts, perspectives, and expectations

4 attachment types

secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent, insecure-disorganised

secure attachment caregiver behaviours

* react quickly and positively to child’s needs
* responsive to child’s needs

secure attachment child behaviours

* distressed when caregiver leaves
* happy when caregiver returns
* seek comfort from caregiver when scared or sad

insecure avoidant attachment caregiver behaviours

unresponsive, uncaring, dismissive

insecure avoidant attachment child behaviours

* no distress when caregiver leaves
* does not acknowledge return of caregiver
* does not seek or make contact with caregiver

insecure ambivalent attachment caregiver behaviours

responds to child inconsistently

insecure ambivalent attachment child behaviours

distress when caregiver leaves, not comforted by return of caregiver

insecure disorganized attachment caregiver behaviours

abusive or neglectful, responds in frightened or frightening ways

insecure disorganized attachment child behaviours

no attaching behaviours. often appear dazed, confused or apprehensive in presence of caregiver

Attachment

the emotional bond which forms between an infant and another person

Surrogate

anyone or anything that ‘substitutes for’ or ‘plays the part’ of something else

Learning

the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviours

Modelling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour

Bobo doll experiment creator

Bandura

Harlow’s monkey experiment proved…

contact and touch are vital to attachment, learning, emotional well-being and psychological development

Harlow’s monkeys post experiment

They showed many signs of atypical behaviour - they were withdrawn and did not want to mate. When forced to mate, these ‘motherless monkeys’ were abusive to their offspring, sometimes killing them.

Harlow hypothesis monkey experiment

the monkey would be drawn to whichever surrogate mother had the bottle

Was Harlow’s hypothesis true? Justify your answer.

Proved false, the monkeys were drawn to the ‘cloth mother’

independent variable in Harlow’s monkey experiment

provision of food by either a cloth or wire surrogate mother

dependent variable in Harlow’s monkey experiment

amount of contact time spent with cloth and wire surrogate mothers

aim of Harlow’s monkey experiment

to find out whether provision of food or contact comfort is more important in the format

impact of Harlow’s research

helped influence key changes in how orphanages, adoption agencies, social services groups, and child care providers approach the care of children.

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stage 1

Trust vs Mistrust, birth to 18 months, Hope

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stage 2

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt, 18 months to 3 years, will

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stage 3

Initiative vs Guilt, 3 to 5 years, purpose

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stage 4

Industry vs Inferiority, 5 to 12 years, confidence

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stage 5

Identity vs Role Confusion, 12 to 18 years, fidelity

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stage 6

Intimacy vs Isolation, 18 to 40 years, love

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stage 7

Generativity vs Stagnation, 40 to 65 years, care

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development stage 8

Integrity vs Despair, 65 years-death, wisdom

Autonomy

the ability to do things independently and the feelings of self-control, self-confidence, competence which accompanies this.

Wild child

A child raised in the wild or neglected and grossly underdeveloped

wild child example

genie

John Bowlby

Attachment theory. Identified the characteristics of a child's attachment to his/her caregiver and the phases that a child experiences when separated from the caregiver.