Cells and Genomes: Universal Features and Diversity

Cells

Basic units of life, containing hereditary information.

Genomes

Complete set of genetic material in an organism.

Heredity

Transmission of traits from parents to offspring.

Species

Group of organisms capable of interbreeding.

Multicellular Organisms

Organisms composed of multiple specialized cells.

Single Cells

Independent living units, often microscopic.

Free Energy

Energy available to do work in biological systems.

Chemical Processes

Reactions that occur within cells to sustain life.

Cell Division

Process by which a single cell replicates.

Living Organisms

Entities that exhibit characteristics of life.

Diversity of Life

Variety of species and forms of life on Earth.

Universal Features

Common characteristics shared by all living cells.

Progeny

Offspring produced by reproduction.

Cell Machinery

Components within cells that perform essential functions.

Organism

Any living entity, from single cells to complex forms.

Biological Functions

Processes that sustain life, like metabolism and reproduction.

Tree of Life

Diagram showing evolutionary relationships among species.

Genetic Information

Instructions encoded in DNA for organism development.

Chemical Factories

Cells that convert raw materials into energy and matter.

Intricate Systems

Complex networks facilitating communication among cells.

Fertilized Egg Cell

Initial cell formed from the fusion of sperm and egg.

Sea Urchin

Example of a multicellular organism used in studies.

Fucus Seaweed

Example of a simple multicellular organism.

DNA

Double-stranded molecule storing hereditary information.

Nucleotide

Building block of DNA, consisting of sugar, phosphate, base.

Monomer

Single unit that forms a polymer chain.

Adenine (A)

One of four nitrogenous bases in DNA.

Thymine (T)

One of four nitrogenous bases in DNA.

Cytosine (C)

One of four nitrogenous bases in DNA.

Guanine (G)

One of four nitrogenous bases in DNA.

Sugar-phosphate backbone

Structural framework of DNA, linking nucleotides.

Double helix

Twisted structure formed by two DNA strands.

Base pairing

A pairs with T; C pairs with G.

Templated polymerization

DNA synthesis using a preexisting strand as template.

Deoxyribose

Sugar component of DNA nucleotides.

Hydrogen bonds

Weak bonds holding base pairs together in DNA.

Polymer chain

Long sequence of repeating monomer units.

Complementary sequences

Matching nucleotide sequences in DNA strands.

Replication

Process of copying DNA for cell division.

Nucleotide sequence

Order of nucleotides in a DNA strand.

Evolution of cells

Cells have diversified over 3.5 billion years.

Information storage

Cells store hereditary data in DNA format.

Chemical methods

Techniques used to read DNA sequences.

DNA extraction

Process of isolating DNA from cells.

Hereditary information

Genetic data passed from parent to offspring.

Sugar-phosphate linkage

Covalent bond connecting nucleotides in DNA.

Directionality

Orientation of DNA strand; guides molecular processes.

Complementary strands

Two DNA strands with matching nucleotide sequences.

Covalent bonds

Strong bonds linking nucleotides within a DNA strand.

DNA replication

Process of copying DNA to create new strands.

Template strand

Original DNA strand serving as a guide for replication.

New strand

Complementary DNA strand synthesized during replication.

RNA synthesis

Transcription process producing RNA from DNA template.

Transcription

First step in gene expression, forming RNA from DNA.

Translation

Process of synthesizing proteins from RNA templates.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Single-stranded polymer crucial for protein synthesis.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Double-stranded polymer storing genetic information.

Uracil (U)

RNA base replacing thymine (T) found in DNA.

Ribose

Sugar in RNA backbone, differs from DNA's deoxyribose.

Amino acids

Building blocks of proteins synthesized during translation.

Polymers

Large molecules made of repeating structural units.

DNA strands separation

Process allowing replication by pulling apart double helix.

Polymer molecule

A large molecule made of repeating subunits.

RNA monomers

Building blocks of RNA, differing from DNA.

RNA transcripts

Copies of RNA synthesized from DNA segments.

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

RNA that conveys genetic information for protein synthesis.

Single-stranded RNA

RNA consisting of a single chain of nucleotides.

RNA backbone

Flexible structure formed by sugar-phosphate links.

Internal associations

Interactions within RNA that stabilize its structure.

Complementary segments

Nucleotide sequences that can base pair with each other.

RNA folding

Process where RNA adopts a specific three-dimensional shape.

Catalyze chemical changes

Facilitate reactions involving other molecules.

Polypeptides

Chains of amino acids forming proteins.

Protein synthesis

Process of creating proteins based on mRNA instructions.

20 types of amino acids

Standard set of building blocks for proteins.

Core structure of amino acids

Common framework for all amino acids.

Distinctive chemical character

Unique properties of each amino acid due to side groups.

Three-dimensional form

Specific shape proteins adopt based on amino acid sequence.

Reactive sites

Areas on proteins that interact with other molecules.

RNA catalysis

RNA's ability to accelerate chemical reactions.

Evolution of life

Development of living organisms from simpler forms.

Cell mass composition

Majority of cell's mass consists of proteins.

Polysaccharide

A polymer chain of sugar monomers.

Lysozyme

An enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of polysaccharides.

Catalytic site

Region on an enzyme where substrate binds.

Enzyme

Protein that catalyzes biochemical reactions.

Covalent bond-breaking reaction

Reaction that breaks covalent bonds between molecules.

Polynucleotides

Nucleotide polymers that encode genetic information.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid, involved in protein synthesis.

mRNA

Messenger RNA, carries genetic information from DNA.

Codon

Triplet of nucleotides that codes for an amino acid.

tRNA

Transfer RNA, brings amino acids to ribosomes.

Anticodon

Sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA complementary to mRNA.

Ribosome

Molecular machine that synthesizes proteins from mRNA.

Feedback loop

Cycle where products influence their own production.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

RNA component of ribosomes essential for protein synthesis.

Amino acid sequence

Order of amino acids in a protein determined by mRNA.

Self-reproducing behavior

Characteristic of living organisms to replicate themselves.

Structure maintenance

Function of proteins to maintain cellular integrity.

Signal sensing

Ability of proteins to detect and respond to signals.