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Cerebrum
Outer part of the brain- Divided into two hemispheres-each hemisphere divided into lobes
Occipital Lobe
Processes, integrates, and interprets vision.
-Primary Visual Cortex
-Primary area/site for vision;
-recognizes shape, color, light, motions, and dimensions. -The Visual Association Area
-interprets info from the primary visual cortex
Frontal lobe
§ The most developmental part of the brain
§ Memory, Emotions, Decision Making and Reasoning, Personality
§ Primary Motor Cortex
□ Body movement
§ Broca's Area
□ speech and facial movement
§ Orbital frontal Cortex
□ Behavior
§ Olfactory Bulb
□ Sense of smell
Temporal Lobe
§ Hearing, Organization/Comprehension of language/ information Retrieval (Memory and memory formation)
§ Primary Auditory Cortex
□ Process the hearing
§ Primary Olfactory Cortex
□ Interprets the sense of smell once it reaches the cortex via the olfactory bulbs.
§ Wernicke's Area (left ___ lobe)
□ Language Comprehension
Parietal Lobe
§ Integration of sensory information
§ Sense of boundary, sense of awareness of spatial experience, sense of perception
§ Primary Somatosensory Cortex/ Postcentral Gyrus
□ Sense of position of body parts, and location in relation to each other
§ Somatosensory Association Cortex
□ Integration and interpretation of the senses in relation to body position and orientation space
§ Primary Gustatory Cortex
□ Interpretations Sense of taste and smell
Midsagittal Sections
divides the brain vertically down the central fissure between the two hemispheres-divides through the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres.
Spinal Cord
○ Messages between nerves and brain
□ Ascending-senses go to the brain
□ Descending -brain sends messages to motor cortex
○ Rhythmic movements
○ Reflexes
Medulla Oblongata
○ In lower half of brainstem,
○ Controls heart beat, respiration and circulation
functions respiratory, cardiovascular, control reflex centers for vomiting, coughing and sneezing
Pons
○ Located on the brainstem
○ Provides inputs to other structures in the brainstem
○ Regulation of motor messages ==> Cerebellum
Nuclei regulate respiration
Cerebellum
○ Balance and posture
○ Rapid sequence movements
Thalamus
Channels sensory information and directs to appropriate area of cerebral cortex
Reticular Formations
Basic functions; alertness, sleeping patterns, wakefulness
Midbrain
○ initial orientation to sound, vision, sight, light
§ Superior colliculus - Blind sight -sense something that's happening; eyes
Inferior colliculus -orientation to loud noises
Corpus Callosum
connects the two hemispheres
Hypothalamus
Regulates with body temp and blood sugar's level (homeostasis)
Limbic system
forms the inner border of the cortex. Functions: emotion formation, processing, leaning and memory.
Amygdala
Primary role in memory of emotional reactions.
Pineal Gland
§ Sleep/wakefulness cycle
§ Produces melatonin-hormones to help sleep
Master gland: secretes long and short term hormones
Pituitary gland
Releases hormones related to endocrine system
Central Nervous system
Brain and Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous system
Somatic Nervous system- the actions we do ourselves
Autonomic Nervous System-the actions we do naturally
-Sympathetic Division (energy consuming)
-Parasympathetic Division (rest and digest)
-Enteric Division (rest and digest)
synapse
space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the next.
neural transmitters
how messages travels across synapses; chemical messages;_____ travel across the synapse and bind to receptors in the next neuron.
receptors
cause the next neuron to send the electrical signal on
gyri
Elevated ridges "winding" around the brain
sulci
Small grooves dividing the gyri
Fissures
Deep grooves, generally dividing large regions/lobes of the brain
Longitudinal fissure
Divides the two Cerebral Hemispheres
Tentorium
Separates the Cerebrum from the Cerebellum
Lateral fissure
Divides the Temporal Lobe from the Frontal and Parietal Lobes
Brain Plasticity
the brain can repair itself and create/repair neural pathways that have been damaged. the brain is not set in stone.
dorsal
of, pertaining to, or situated at the back
ventral
on or toward the lower, abdominal plane of the body; equivalent to the front, or anterior, in humans.
anterior
front
posterior
back
Ipisilateral
same side as reference point/
contra-lateral
opposite side of reference point
medial
closer to the middle point
Lateral
outside of the injury
Distal
further from the mid-line
Proximal
closer to the mid-line
Synaptic cleft
space between neurons or dendrite and a cell-where the gaba or dopamine is sent from the dendrites down to the other nerve where the receptors either receive or push it away-resting to action potential process
cerebral cortex
The outermost layer of gray matter making up the superficial aspect of the cerebrum. 2-4mm thick
transverse fissure
divides the occipital lobe and the cerebellum
Types of Animal Research
Animals are biochemically similar to humans
mammals are used
-rats and mice-neurotransmission
-other mammals: senses
Invertebrates
-zebrafish- transparent eggs, good for developmental neuroscience research
-sea slugs: learning and memory
national and international guidelines and standards for responsible animal care and use
Animal Research Findings
chemical connections in nervous system
synapse discovered from studies using mice and rats
-roadmap of pathways drawn from staining
animal research findings: parkinson's disease
-neurotransmitter dopamine was depleted (found out using rats and mice)
dopamine is highly concentrated in basal ganglia (motor function)
-used with pigeons
causes cells death in basal ganglia, limiting dopamine production
resulted in first treatment
-levodopa: converts to dopamine in brain
Animal Research findings: drug addiction
found rats also form addictions to same substances as humans
reward pathways affected by drugs
-dopamine neurons in ventral tegmental area
-same pathway affected by natural rewards
-drugs mimic or block neurotransmitters
Animal research: learning and memory
Eric Kandel and Sea Slugs
-short term memory: certain stimuli produced more robust reflex
-reflex could stay in place for days and weeks as STM
-stronger synapse responsible for this info retention
long term memory
stronger stimuli activate genes
genes increase some proteins, decrease others, creates new synapses
Animal Research: Critical Periods
critical period in visual development of vision
-visual experience guides development in visual circuits
amblyopia
-vision in one eye is reduced because eyes don't work together
-studies with monkeys and cats found best treatment results occur before 8 years old
Sample Research Methods: micro dialysis
-measures of chemical found in specific areas of brain
radioactive amino acids
-injected in brain cells
-visual of brain activity and tracks nerve connections
Sample Research Methods: electrophysiology
study of electrical properties of neurons
-action potentials
-long term potentiation (cellular event that makes learning and memory possible)
can be used to diagnose some conditions
Imaging: PET
positron emission tomography
-measures blood flow and energy consumption
1. small amount of radioisotopes are introduced into the blood
2. becomes concentrated in parts of the brain doing the most work
Imaging: PET
helps scientists understand
-how drugs affect the brain
-what happens when people work on different activities
-understand certain disorders (strokes, depression, parkinson's)
MRI (magnetic resource imaging)
3D images of organs and structures inside the body with radiation
-shows when structural abnormalities first appear, how they affect subsequent development and how they correlate with mental and emotional aspects of this disorder
Imaging: MRS (magnetic resonance spectrometry)
similar to MRI
concentration of specific chemicals in different parts of the brain
providing new insight into development and aging
Imaging: fMRI
compares brain activity under resting and active conditions
detects increases in blood oxygen levels when brain activity brings flesh blood to a particular part of the brain
created detailed map of brain areas involved in mental activities
Imaging: EMG
finds weak magnetic fields emitted by neurons
finds rapidly changing patterns of neuronal activity and can record the strength of this activity
Imaging: Optical Imaging
ver safe and inexpensive
very weak lasers are shined through the skull to visualize brain activity
NIRS (near infrared spectrometry) tracks blood flow with lasers
Genes
number of genes in human is unknown but estimated to be around 20,000-25,000 pairs
Gene Diagnosis: Chromosome Microarrays
-look at overall chromosome makeup and finds deletions and duplications
-helps identify types of rearrangements and specific genes associated with developmental disabilities and neurological disorders
Gene Diagnosis: Tracking Down Genes
HTT
-altered in Huntington's Disease
RBI
-Retinoblastoma
X-Linked Gene DMD
-Duchenee Muscular Dystrophy (progressive muscle disease)
FMR1 Gene
-Abnormal in people with Fragile X Syndrome
Gene Diagnosis
Understanding of the structure and function of individual genes associated with diseases of the brain and nervous system is progressing rapidly
once these genes are found
new therapies could be developed
DNA sequencing technology
-expected to uncover functional sequence of all 20,000+ genes and DNA that influences or regulate these gene
-complex and daunting
-identified MLL2 gene
CT
uses x-rays from different angles
late 20's
When does the rate of pruning of synapses begin to slow down?
40
At what age does the brain's white matter peak in volume?
locally organized, areas near each other working together
How are brain networks organized during childhood and adolescence?
widely distributed, distant areas working together
How are the brain networks organized in an adult brain?
anterior portion of the frontal lobe
What lobe and area are considered "wired up" in adulthood?
planning, solving problems, making decisions and cognitive control
Name four higher cognitive abilities of the anterior portion of the frontal lobe.
the ability to suppress impulses in favor of more appropriate responses
What is cognitive control?
25 to 60
At what age does intelligence peak?
30
At what age does the ability to solve problems and identify patterns occur?
50
At what age does intelligence which deals with vocabulary and knowledge of facts increase until?
risk of injury and disease
What is increased as someone ages?
dementia
Name the neurological condition that causes a decline in cognitive ability that interferes with a person's day-to-day functioning.
True
T/F Neuroscientists believe that our brains can remain healthy as we age.
False
T/F Intelligence peaks by age 20.
True
T/F The brain loses some neurons as we age.
False
T/F Scientists agree that cognition starts declining as early as the 20's and 30's.
diet and exercise
What lifestyle choices can help to support cognitive health throughout life.
decline in memory
What is the most common change in cognition during the aging process?
declarative memory
What type of memory declines with age?
nondeclarative memory
What type of memory remains largely intact with age?
True
T/F Declarative memory includes autobiographical memory of life events.
episodic memory
What are autobiographical memory of life events called?
semantic memory
What type of memory is learned knowledge?
False
T/F Declarative memory includes procedural memory.
working memory
What type of memory is the ability to hold a piece of information in mind and manipulate it.
working memory
What type of declarative memory declines with age?
fluid intelligence
Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly is described as what?
30
When does fluid intelligence start to decline?
True
T/F Working memory is an example of fluid intelligence.
False
T/F Episodic memory is an example of fluid intelligence.
selective attention
What is the ability to focus on a particular stimulus and filter our distractions called?
divided attention
Name the type of attention that refers to the ability to focus on two tasks at the same time.
30's or 40's
Studies using brain imaging techniques have revealed that total brain volume begins to decline at what age?
60
At what age does the total brain volume begin to decline at a greater rate?
False
T/F Volume loss of the brain is uniform.
prefrontal cortex, cerebellum and hippocampus
What three brain areas show the biggest loss of brain volume?
