1914 - 1947 British Empire

Inter-war years

How significant was the impact of ww1 on Empire?

How significant was the impact of ww1 on Empire?

• Expansion = Areas lost, new territories

• BR rule = Spread too thin to have strong or effective control

• Trade & commerce = Negatively impacted, less capable of continuing trading while fighting

• Importance of individuals = Increased importance due to disruption & fragmentation due to war

• Attitude toward Empire = Negative; issues at home escalate & worsen due to war effort

• Indigenous Relation = Rise in nationalism as compensation for fighting on behalf of Empire

Colonies gained (Areas taken control of);

Due to Treaty of Versailles (+ other peace treaties)

• Central + East Africa

• SW Africa

• Middle East

• Pacific Colonies

Factors in the lead up to war

• Anglo-German tensions (Weltpolitik)

• Involvement of Dominions - Aus + NZ contribute to naval fund

• 1911 Imperial defence conference; procure involvement of dominions (volunteer troops)

• Abandonment of Berlin to Baghdad railway (threat of access to India)

• 1908 Young Turks Revolt - Collapse of the Ottoman Empire; Scramble for territory between European Powers (e.g. Austria-Hungary)

Britain and the Middle East, Post WWI

• Overpromising and underdelivering → making contradicting promises to various different places and peoples

• Socially and Economically interfering

British Empire and the Middle East - Pre ww1

Palestine under Ottoman rule

British Empire and the Middle East - 1914

Britain promise Arab independence under Ottoman rule (incl. Palestine) in exchange for support against Turkey

British Empire and the Middle East - 1915-16

Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

Exchange of letter between Sherrif Hussein ibn Ali, ruler of Mecca and the Hejaz, and Sir Henry MacMahon, Br high commissioner in Egypt; regarding the future political status of the Arab lands of the Middle East, w/ Britain aiming to bring about a revolt against the Ottoman Empire

• Effects: Securing rights of Arabs within Middle Eastern countries

• Important for the expansion of Empire through the middle east, securing the Suez Canal from conflict & protecting route to India

• Voided by Sykes-Picot agreement & calls Balfour Declaration into question

British Empire and the Middle East - May 1916

Skyes-Picot Agreement

Sykes-Picot Agreement

Secret pact signed between Britain and France, outlining respective spheres of control withing the Middle East, post-war - Viewed by Arabs as betrayal of Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

Palestine, designated for international administration (a.k.a BR)

France - SE Turkey, N Iraq, Syria, Lebanon

Britain- Jordan, S Iraq, Palestine

• Effects: division of area not ‘owned’ by either country, disregards potentially gained or lost territories from the end of war

• Collapsed by Balfour Declaration destroys faith in Britain's ability to retain promises (also proven by Balfour)

British Empire and the Middle East - During War

• Britain and France encouraged Arab rebellion against Turkish Emp!

• Heavy fighting between British & Turkish forces

• Turkey enforce Palestine-Arab conscription

• Arab self-determination growing

British Empire and the Middle East - 1917

Establishment of (1917) Balfor Declaration

Balfour Declaration

Letter from Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, concerning Britain's desire to create a Zionist sympathetic, Jewish home nation - on the basis, that there would be no infringement on the rights of non-Jewish communities already within Palestine (proposed sight for nation state)

• Resulted in rise of Jewish immigration, creating displacement of local Palestinians

• Contradicted terms and promises of Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

• Created to appease anti-imperialist Americans, as Britain was indebted to the USA (ww1)

Britsh Empire and the Middle East - 1918

Aftermath of war, Sons of Hussein made kings of Transjordan, Syria & Iraq

British Empire and the Middle East - July 1922

League of Nations give Britain, mandate to administrate Palestine - Britain express interest in Zionism and describe its intentions of developing a Jewish State

Why was their ‘policing’ within Palestine?

attempt at restoring order, as Arabs had thrown stones at houses, due to them believing that Jewish people wished to rebuild an ancient temple on area that was holy ground for BOTH Judaism and Islam

Palestine 1924

• Garrisons created within Palestine - didn't stop the spread of violence

• 173/1576 police in Palestine were British

• Cost £9 million

Palestine 1928 - 9

• Petty harassment against Jewish worshippers by Muslims, Nationalist zionist movement attempted gaining exclusive worshipping access

• Demonstrations, random attacks & killings of Jews and Arabs

Ireland 1801

Act of Union, of GB and Ireland came into effect

Ireland, 19th Century

Great famine of 1840s, Campaigns for Irish Home Rule

Ireland 1913

Dublin Lock-out; Aug 1913 - Jan 1914, industrial disputes between 20,000 workers and 300 employers

→ Rebellion in Ulster, stopping Asquith’s HR bill from passing in Parliament

Ireland 1914

Threat of Civil war, due to Got of Ireland Act being put on hold due to outbreak of WW1; Irish volunteers prepared armed rising against Irish conscription

Ireland 1916

Easter Rising

• Triggered by 1916 conscription, Organised by Irish Volunteers (Nationalists) calling for Home Rule

• Uprisings in Dublin, initially unpopular due to unity created amongst opposition fighting together in trenches → change after BR response = 15 leaders executed, street fighting = 450 Civilians died + 1000 arrested

Ireland 1919 - 21

Anglo-Irish treaty signed after Anglo-Irish war, creating ‘Irish Free State’ (ROI)

Ireland 1922

Catholic Irish Free State given dominion status

Why did the relationship with America change after the war?

• Power shift from Britain to USA

• End of LEND-LEASE = repayment of debt; not paying for continuation of empire (e.g. Pro Indian independence)

Why did the relationship with America change after the war?

• Power shift between Britain & USA

• End of LEND-LEASE = repayment of debt; not paying for continuation of empire (e.g. Pro Indian independence)

• Pressure from the US on Britain, catalyst in collapse of empire

Why did the relationship with America change after the war?

• Power shift between Britain & USA

• End of LEND-LEASE = repayment of debt; not paying for continuation of empire (e.g. Pro Indian independence)

What was the Sterling Crisis?

• Br used USD to build dollar loan to build reserve of US$ in Bank of England

• Imperial demands → used up $ reseves within 6wks

  • 30.5% deval from £ to $

Why was it more challenging to be a colonial administrator between 1914-47?

Instability from war, and an increase in nationalism made colonial control and profitably harder

Separation of the Colonial office in 1925 resulted in…

• Establishment of Dominions Office w/ Secretary of State for Dominions (responsible for other territories aside from colonies)

• Establishment of Colonial Office w/ Secretary of State for Colonies

What was the impact of WW1 on Empire

• HUGE strain on Br Govt. resources

• Growth of British Empire territory, due to Treaty of Versailles assigning former German colonies & Ottoman Empire territories

• Rise in Nationalism = forced to consider granting greater degrees of self-government, across colonies and Dominions

Territories Gained By Br Empire from Treaty of Versailles

• Palestine

• Iraq

• Parts of; Cameroon and Togoland

Impact of the mandate system on Empire

Allowed League of nations to oversee admin of territories not YET ready for independence.

Mainly Middle Eastern and African territories, were supposed to be governed by mandate powers until deemed ready for self-determination.

INTENDED to be TEMPORARY, lasted 7 DECADES

How did WW2 weaken the British Empire?

• Further weakened the British Empire, as war effort put SIGNIFICANT strain on Britain's resources and manpower.

  • Increases in nationalist movements (post-easter rising 1916) made it increasingly difficult for Britain to maintain control and govern Empire

Impact of Imperial withdrawal from India on British Empire

• Loss of major source of Manpower and resources (empire becoming increasingly unmanageable post ww2)

• INC led by Gandhi, launched a Campaign of Civil Disobedience (1930) - as an effore to force BR Govt. to grant Indian Independence

• INC and All Indian Muslim League (est. 1906) led efforts for the Indian independence Movement

• Indian Independence Granted in 1947

Impact of Imperial withdrawal from Palestine on the British Empire

Limited immediate impact on Empire - however, the continuous impact on Empire was the criticism received from the British withdrawal, as there were only limited attempts at diffusing and trying to find a solution to the conflict between Arabs and Jews in Palestine

Withdrawal from Palestine occurred in the face of extreme and increasing violence and US/ United Nations pressure.

Impact of Imperial withdrawal from the Middle East on the British Empire

Successful granting of India's independence, emboldened nationalist movements in Palestine and across the Middle East.

• Egypt = Wafd nationalist part forced British Govt. to grant full Egyptian independence in 1922

• Iraq, nationalist uprising (1920) forced British govt. to est. monarchy under British rule

Impact of the contraction of Empire

• Accelerated by the world wars & rise of nationalist movements across the colonies

• HOWEVER, decolonization had already begun through granting self-government to colonies (e.g. Canada 1867, Australia 1901)

Reasons for UN creating Class A Mandates

Mandates were created as the League of Nations was in charge of overseeing that territories which were deemed not yet ready for independence & intended to;

• Give control of former Ottoman and Germany territories to Allied powers (Allied powers look after on behalf of UN)

• Ensure the well-being and development of the peoples within the territories

• Prevent the exploitation of peoples in those territories

British Motivation for Mandates

British Motivation for a Palestinian Mandate, was economic- due to the land trade route to India being through Palestine, Mesopotamia and Anatolia (Asian Turkey)

Result of UN Mandates

• increasing unrest across African and Asian territories where Mandates were enforced

• Facilitated the development of Independence movements

• Saw shifts in British Colonial policy and Administration and the struggle for empire to adapt and cope with the new emerging challenges

Colonial Policy and Administration in India (1914-1947)

• Federal system of government, combining provisional autonomy and British Control

• Introduction of a “Dyarchy” through 1919 Government of India Act - created a limited system of self-government for India & transferred power to Indians, while maintaining British control over key areas (e.g. Defence, Foreign Affairs)

• Gandhi's Civil disobedience campaign (1930) put pressure on Britain to consider granting India dominion status

• 1935 Government of India Act - granted a greater degree of self-government, BUT was rejected by INC and All Indian Muslim League

  • The act was suspended w/ the outbreak of World War II, alienating Indian nationalists & proved to British leaders that long-term control over India was unlikely

• Granting of Independence in 1947, however included the partition of India and Pakistan; lead to the widespread displacement (14 - 15 Mil), 3 Million deaths (hunger, suicide, violence, disease) and was the catalyst for religious violence

Colonial Policy and Administration in Africa (1914 - 1947)

• Largely focused on economic exploitation

  • encouragement of white settlers to move to Africa and take up land (preference given over indigenous populations)

• British Colonial administrators did little to develop economies of its African colonies, focus more on extracting raw materials for exportation to Britain

• Post WW2 African colonies pushed for independence, in 1923 British Government issued a paper about Kenya - stressing the interests of the Indigenous populations but did nothing to try improving political issues

• Post WW2 saw a rise in nationalist movements, along with Britain's weakening status as a global power, supported gradual decolonization