more huamn evo

Oldowan key features

Simple tools - round stones with one end chipped

Oldowan makers

Homo habilis, early Homo erectus

Oldowan key artefacts

Chopper, simple flake

Oldowan selective advantages

Cutting meat, breaking bones for marrow; simple but effective for scavenging/hunting

Acheulean key features

Large, bifacial hand-axes and cleavers; more symmetrical

Acheulean makers

Homo erectus, later Homo heidelbergensis

Acheulean key artefacts

Hand-axe, cleaver

Acheulean selective advantages

More versatile — butchering, digging, woodworking; reflects planning and skill

Mousterian key features

Flake-based tools; points, scrapers; Levallois technique

Mousterian makers

Neanderthals, early Homo sapiens

Mousterian key artefacts

Scraper, spear point

Mousterian selective advantages

Specialised tools for hunting, hide processing, woodworking; efficiency and adaptability

Upper Paleolithic key features

Blade technology; bone, antler, ivory tools; symbolic art

Upper Paleolithic makers

Homo sapiens

Upper Paleolithic key artefacts

Needle, harpoon, blade, decorated figurine

Upper Paleolithic selective advantages

Advanced hunting/fishing; sewing clothes; symbolic culture; rapid cultural innovation

Use of Fire selective advantages

Improved diet quality (cooked food easier to digest), enabled migration to colder regions, protection from predators, extended active hours

Clothing selective advantages

Allowed survival in colder climates, enabled migration into diverse environments, reduced disease risk from exposure

Abstract Thought (Communication, Language, Art) selective advantages

Facilitated social cohesion, planning, teaching, and cultural transmission; improved cooperation and problem-solving

Domestication of Plants and Animals selective advantages

Stable food supply, population growth, reduced dependence on hunting/gathering, enabled specialized labor

Permanent Settlement selective advantages

Development of agriculture, storage of surplus food, complex societies, trade networks, and cultural development

‘Levallois technique’

refers to a strategy of stone-tool production, specifically a means of taking a block of stone (core) and producing sharp-edged flake tools through percussive application of a stone hammer.

Out of Africa/Replacement theory

Modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolved in Africa ~200,000 years ago and then dispersed, replacing other archaic humans with little or no interbreeding. Origin of Modern Humans: Africa, Europe, and Asia (regional continuity)

Multiregional theory

Modern humans evolved simultaneously in multiple regions from local archaic humans (e.g., H. erectus), with gene flow between populations maintaining a single species. Origin of Modern Humans: Africa only

Out of africa supporting evidence

● Fossil record: Oldest anatomically modern human fossils (Omo, Herto in Ethiopia ~195–160k years old).

● Genetic evidence: mtDNA, Y-chromosome, and autosomal DNA show African origin; highest diversity in Africa.
● Archaeological evidence: Early symbolic behavior, tools, and art appear first in Africa.

● DNA evidence of interbreeding shows some Neanderthal/Denisovan input, but overwhelmingly African origin

mtDNA Evidence Out of Africa (Replacement)

Greatest diversity in Africa; all modern lineages trace back to “Mitochondrial Eve” in Africa (~150–200kya)

Y Chromosome Evidence Out of Africa (Replacement)

Deepest and most diverse lineages in Africa; all modern lineages trace back to “Y-chromosomal Adam” in Africa (~200kya)

Nuclear DNA Evidence Out of Africa (Replacement)

Genome-wide studies show highest variation in Africa; non-Africans are a subset of African diversity

Interpretation of Genetic Evidence for Human Dispersal Theories Out of Africa (Replacement)

Strong support for single African origin and dispersal

mtDNA Evidence Multiregional

Would predict long, regionally distinct lineages, but non-African mtDNA derives from African subsets

Y Chromosome Evidence Multiregional

Would predict independent regional lineages, but non-African Y lineages are nested within African variation

Nuclear DNA Evidence Multiregional

Would predict deep regional continuity, but genomes show clear African origin

Interpretation of Genetic Evidence for Human Dispersal Theories Multiregional

Contradicted by DNA evidence — no independent regional lineages found

Domestication of Animals benefits

Reliable food source (meat, milk, eggs); Labor for plowing, transport; Companionship and protection; Trade and economic opportunities

Domestication of Animals costs

Spread of disease from animals to humans; Increased workload for humans (feeding, care); Overgrazing and environmental degradation; Dependence on fewer species (less dietary diversity)

Permanent Settlements benefits

Stable access to food through agriculture; Storage of surplus food; Development of specialized labour and crafts; Growth of complex societies, trade, and culture

Permanent Settlements costs

Higher disease risk due to dense populations; Resource depletion in local environment; Conflicts over land and resources; Social inequality and hierarchical structures