Week 8: Peer relationships
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73 Terms
What defines a peer?
A peer is one that is of equal standing with another, often belonging to the same societal group based on age, grade, or status.
How do peer relationships differ from adult-child relationships?
Peer relationships are horizontal/symmetrical, where both parties have equal social power, while adult-child relationships are vertical/asymmetrical, with one having greater knowledge and power.
What did Lewis et al. find about peer relationships in infants?
Infants show interest in other infants while using their mother as a safe base, indicating early social interactions.
What are signs of peer interaction in infants?
Signs include direct gaze, gestures, smiles, and responding to other infants' play behaviour.
What is the 'sibling barricade' effect?
It refers to the phenomenon where parental treatment results in opposite effects for siblings due to comparison processes.
What role do older siblings play in a child's development?
Older siblings can act as role models and attachment figures, contributing to a child's social and pretend play experiences.
What did Kitzmann et al. (2002) find about only children?
Only children were rated as least liked and more aggressive or withdrawn compared to those with siblings.
How do peer relationships change with age?
Interactions increase
Group play becomes more common (Smith, 1978)
Groups become larger (Eiferman, 1970)
More segregated by sex (Maccoby, 1998)
What is sociometry?
Sociometry is a method of measuring children's social standings within their peer group, often through observation and surveys.
What do sociograms represent?
Sociograms visually represent a child's relationships with peers, indicating the quality of their social interactions.
Double-headed arrow on diagram if both individuals like each other - only one-way if it’s one-sided, more heads = more friends
Outline Coie, Dodge and Coppotelli’s (1982) study on sociometric status types and what was found
Children were classified into 5 different groups: popular, controversial, neglected, rejected and average
Each child in the class was asked to nominate the 3 classmates they liked the most and 3 classmates they liked the least
Each of the 5 groups were found to have specific behavioural profiles associated with the group
Liked the most = popular
Liked the least = rejected
Outline and describe the behavioural profiles as proposed by Coie, Dodge and Coppotelli, 1982
Popular: good at initiating interactions; leads others'; cooperative; friendly; sensitive to others
Controversial: leads others; aggressive; disruptive; prone to anger; sociable; cooperative; humorous
Neglected: few interactions; not disruptive; avoid aggression; not noticed
Rejected: aggressive; disruptive; delinquent; withdrawn and isolated; timid; attribute malicious intent to others
Average: equal amount of positive and negative assessments
What factors influence a child's peer status?
Factors include social learning, attachment style, academic level, social skills, emotional development, and extracurricular activities.
What are the two main types of rejected children identified by Cillessen et al. (1992)?
Rejected-aggressive and rejected-submissive children.
What type of play do ‘rejected’ children engage with?
Differences in play behaviours (e.g. Dodge et al, 1983): less cooperative with others, less time with others, more aggressive play
What is the impact of peer rejection on children's behavior?
Peer rejection can amplify behaviours that lead to further rejection, creating a cycle of social difficulties.
What did Newcomb et al. (1993) find about popular children?
Popular children typically have good interpersonal skills, are not high in aggression, and are not withdrawn.
What is the 3 stage model for friendship expectations according to Bigelow and La Gaipa (1980)
Reward-cost stage: common activities, living nearby, similar expectations
Normative stage: shared values, rules and sanctions
Empathetic stage: understanding, self-disclosure, shared interests
What is the confluence model?
It suggests that a child's intellectual development is influenced by the absolute intellectual level of family members.
What changes occur in peer relationships during middle childhood?
Peer groups become larger and increasingly segregated by sex, with boys engaging in larger, risk-taking activities and girls in smaller, information-sharing groups.
What are peer relationships like during adolescence?
Focus on intimacy, self-disclosure and emotional support becomes increasingly important
Groups are increasingly based on values and beliefs rather than shared activities
Friendships are fairly stable
Romantic relationships begin
What is the relationship between sibling dynamics and peer interactions?
Siblings help children learn to manage conflict and can influence their social skills and peer relationships.
What are the behavioral descriptors of popular children according to Coie et al. (1982)?
Popular children lead, cooperate, and seek help, while rejected children may fight or be disruptive.
What is the difference between neglected and rejected children?
Neglected children are often quiet and low in sociability but not especially lonely, while rejected children, especially rejected-submissive, report the highest loneliness.
What did Tremblay-Leveau and Nadel (1996) observe about toddlers' behaviour when excluded?
Toddlers showed increased attempts to engage peers when excluded from adult-peer interactions.
What is the role of social visibility in peer status?
Social visibility refers to how a child's perceived popularity can influence their peer relationships and status.
What are some characteristics of children with rejected-submissive status?
They tend to be shy, withdrawn, and experience higher levels of loneliness compared to their peers.
How can social skills training benefit children with peer rejection?
It may help children who lack friends to improve their social interactions and reduce rejection.
What factors may lead to social withdrawal in children?
Behavioural inhibition, attachment patterns, and overprotective parenting.
What did Howes et al, 1994 discover about interactions amongst friends?
Longitudinal study
Children attending daycare
Children with secure attachments were:
More socially competent
Better at initiating and maintaining peer interactions
Less aggressive and more cooperative
Children with insecure attachments showed:
More conflict with peers
Poorer social skills
What did Fonzi et al, 1997 find out about conflict resolution among friends?
Socially competent / popular children:
Used constructive strategies (negotiation, compromise)
Resolved conflicts more successfully
Rejected children:
More likely to use aggressive or avoidant strategies
Had less successful conflict outcomes
What did Azmitia and Montgomery, 1993 discover about differences in task performance among friends?
→ Found that task performance is better when working with friends in comparison to working with non-friends
Children working with friends:
Showed greater cooperation
Communicated more effectively
Were more willing to explain ideas and listen to each other
Achieved higher-quality task outcomes
Children working with non-friends:
Had more conflict
Were less engaged
Performed less well on problem-solving tasks
What correlation did Chen et al. (2004) find regarding loneliness?
A correlation between loneliness and peer-assessed aggression.
How do peers influence a child's development?
Peers help develop social, emotional, and cognitive skills, shaping behaviour, language, values, and beliefs.
What are the key features of a close friendship according to Newcomb & Bagwell (1995)?
Reciprocal, intimacy, intense social activity, frequent conflict resolution, and effective task performance.
What did Howes et al. (1994) observe about friendships among 4-year-olds?
Friends showed more complex pretend play than non-friends.
What is the relationship between friendship stability and depressive symptoms in adolescents?
Higher friendship stability is associated with lower depressive symptoms.
How do friendships change from preschool to middle school?
They shift from instrumental relationships to intimate relationships focused on caring, loyalty, and self-disclosure.
What did Lever (1978) find about gender differences in playgroups?
Boys often played in larger, mixed-age groups while girls were in smaller, same-age pairs.
What is the significance of peer rejection in middle childhood?
It is linked with poorer life status and mental health symptoms in young adulthood.
What is the difference between quality and quantity of friendships in adolescence?
Quality matters more than the number of friends; aggressive children tend to have less stable friendships.
How doe friendships change in pre-school
3-4 years marks the start of stable relationships starting to form
→ Instrumental relationships: friendships are mostly about liking the same things, spending time together and doing shared activities
What are instrumental relationships?
Friendships which are mostly about liking the same things, spending time together and doing shared activities
What are prosocial behaviours?
Behaviours that benefit others, such as helping, comforting, and sharing.
What is the difference between empathy and sympathy?
Empathy is an affective response based on understanding another's emotional state, while sympathy is feeling sorrow or concern for another person.
What defines antisocial behavior?
Intentional behaviour that hurts another person, often predicted by temperament and difficulties in emotion regulation.
What characterises bullying?
Repeated actions towards an individual over time, involving an imbalance of power.
What roles do bystanders play in bullying situations?
Bystanders can be assistants, reinforcers, outsiders, or defenders.
What is relational aggression?
Aggression that involves social manipulation, such as exclusion, spreading rumors, and betrayal by friends.
What role do friends play in victimisation?
Friends can act as a buffer against the effects of victimisation.
What is the impact of temperament on friendship and peer relations?
Temperament, attachment, and emotional regulation abilities predict friendship quality and peer relations.
What is the significance of self-disclosure in adolescent friendships?
It becomes increasingly important for intimacy and emotional support.
What did Fonzi et al. (1997) find about interactions among friends?
Friends engage in more conflict resolution, negotiating, sharing, and making compromises.
What is the role of parenting in the development of antisocial behaviour?
Parenting can influence behaviour through role modeling and exposure to aggression.
How does peer status affect psychological outcomes?
Peer status is associated with various psychological and social outcomes, but causation is difficult to establish.
What is the relationship between academic performance and peer relationships?
Peer status can influence academic performance and attendance.
What are characteristics of better-quality friendships?
They last longer and involve more companionship, help, security, closeness, and low conflict.
What is the significance of emotional support in friendships during adolescence?
Emotional support becomes crucial as friendships focus on intimacy and self-disclosure.
What are the consequence of bullying for the victim?
Loneliness, avoiding school, depression, self-esteem (e.g. Hawker and Boulton, 2000)
What did Lippman, 2007 suggest about child well-being?
Importance of child having a safe home
Parents shape children’s social development by modelling relationships and values
Quality of parenting is important
What broader competencies does modern research on child well-being address? (Rychen and Salganik, 2003)
Developmental competencies, parental and child competence, and the impact of child health on well-being.
→ social, emotional and cognitive competencies
Understanding child needs and behaviours, and how to support optimal development.
What are the four areas to identify child well-being? (Lippman et al, 2011)
Physical health and safety
Cognitive development and education
Psychological and emotional development
Social development and behaviour
What does the physical health & safety area of child well-being include? (Lippman et al, 2011 - 4 identification areas of child well-being)
What aspects are included in cognitive development & education? (Lippman et al, 2011 - 4 identification areas of child well-being)
What is involved in psychological & emotional development? (Lippman et al, 2011 - 4 identification areas of child well-being)
What does social development & behaviour encompass? (Lippman et al, 2011 - 4 identification areas of child well-being)