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Functioning of Penicillin
There is a sterically strained beta lactam ring in the structure of penicillin
This ring opens up and binds and incapacitates
The transpeptidase enzyme which is responsible for forming the cross-linking protein chains in the bacterial cell wall
Because the cell wall is weak, the osmotic pressure of surrounding water causes it to rupture and die
Differences between Morphine and Diamorphine
Morphine features 2 hydroxyl groups whereas diamorphine has 2 ester groups
This makes diamorphine less polar than morphine
As a result, Diamorphine can cross the lipid blood-brain barrier more easily and rapidly (thus making it more potent)
Therapeutic index
The ratio between the Toxic Dose and Effective Dose for 50% of the population (TD50/ED50).
Therapeutic window
The range of dosage over which a drug causes a therapeutic effect without creating toxic side effects for 50% of the population
Effective Dose 50 (ED50)
Minimum dosage required to produce the desired therapeutic effect in 50% of animals
Lethal Dose 50 (LD50)
Minimum lethal dosage that causes death in 50% of animals; the lower the number, the more toxic the substance
Toxic Dose 50 (TD50)
A dosage that causes a toxic effect in 50% of the population.
Synergistic effect
A tyoe of drug interaction whereby moderate side effects of multiple drugs can cause a severe risk (eg. Aspirin and Alcohol causing stomach bleeding)
Drug bioavailability
the fraction of the administered dose that is absorbed into the bloodstream
Functioning of Aspirin
Aspirin works by:
Going to the site of pain or injury
Inhibiting the production of the prostaglandins molecule (synthesized by the COX enzyme) which is responsible for signalling pain to the brain
Effects of Aspirin
Mild analgesic (Pain reduction)
Antipyretic (Fever reduction)
Anti-inflammatory (Swelling reduction)
Opiates
Compounds that are derivatives of morphine and have similar physiological effects
Strong analgesics
Compounds that bind to the opioid receptors in the brain, thus blocking out pain signals from reaching the brain.
Blood-Brain Barrier
Lipid layer that separates the brain from the bloodstream
Antacids
Any substance, generally a base or basic salt, which neutralizes stomach acid so the pH level returns to the desired level
Used to relieve acid indigestion, upset stomach and heartburn
Side effects of Antacids
Production of CO2 gas which causes bloating
Reduces phosphate concentration in stomach
Affects electrolytic balance
Functioning of Omeprazole
Omeprazole is a compound which binds and inhibits the gastric proton pump enzyme
Which is responsible for signalling to the stomach cells to secrete more acid
As a result, the secretion of HCl stomach acid is reduced for a prolonged period of time
Functioning of Ranitidine
Ranitidine is a compound that binds to the H2-histamine receptors on the stomach lining cells
It is responsible for signaling for the secretion of stomach acid
By binding to these receptors, Ranitidine blocks our histamines from binding to the receptors, thus preventing acid secretion for a short amount of time
Steps of viral infection
Capsid shel binds to cell receptors
Viral particles cross the membrane or inject their genome into cells
The viral genome gets translated and duplicated in the cell
Newly made viruses leave the cell to infect other cells
Functioning of Oseltamivir and Zanamivir
The compound goes to infected cells and binds to and inhibits the neuraminidase enzyme which is responsible in the budding process of viral release
This traps the virus inside the cell until it eventually dies
HIV
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
AIDS
Auto Immunodeficiency Syndrome
Why HIV is hard to treat
HIV rapidly makes new viruses and mutates
HIV can integrate its viral DNA in host cells and remain dormant
HIV is a retrovirus
Low Level Waste
Waste that contains low radioactivity and short half-life times
High Level Waste
Waste that contains high radioactivity and long half-life times
LLW disposal method
LLW is stored in a container and buried until its radioactivity is decayed
Then it is incinerated and disposed of
HLW disposal method
HLW is cooled down with water for many years
Then it can be recycled
Main type of environmental waste
Organic solvents
Common organic solvents
Benzene, Chloroform, Dichloromethane
Problems with Organic solvents
Toxic for the environment
Highly flammable
Creates vapour that contributes to the greenhouse effect
Green chemistry alternatives
Solvent free reactions
Fewer step synthesis (atom economy)
Enzyme catalysts
Such as Shikimic Acid which is a precursor to Oseltamivir and can be produced from genetically engineered E. Coli
Taxol
A drug commonly used to treat different forms of cancer
Chiral Auxiliary
An optically active substance that is temporarily incorporated into an organic synthesis so that it can be carried out asymmetrically with the selective formation of a single enantiomer
What is used to measure the purity of Taxol
Polarimeter
Functioning of Taxol
Taxol binds to the tubulin of rapidly multiplying cancer cells
This prevents cells from undergoing mitosis
Which eventually leads to cell death from killer T cells
Radiotherapy
The use of radioactive substances to cause genetic errors in cancerous cells to kill cancer cells
Side effects of radiotherapy
Hair loss
Nail damage
Secondary cancer
Targeted alpha therapy (TAT)
Used for treatment in cancers that have spread
Alpha emitting nuclides (Ac-225) are attached to antibodies that target the spread cancer cells
The alpha particles are released and damage the genetic material of cancer cells, killing them
Boron neutron capture therapy
Used in the treatment of neck and brain cancers
Non radioactive boron-10 is taken and accumulates at cancer cells
Patient is irradiated with neutrons that are captured by boron atoms, forming boron-11
Boron-11 is an alpha emitter with kills the cancer cells
Gamma radiation therapy
Uses low doses of gamma radiation multiple times to target a specific cancerous region
Reasons for using Tc-99 in radiodiagnostic
The compound is versatile and can be incorporated into many compounds
It has a perfect half-life such that it is long enough for imaging but short enough to not cause prolonged radioactive exposure
It releases gamma rays and electrons which are not very harmful
Functioning of fractional distillation
continuous evaporation and condensation
increased surface area in column helps condensation
most volatile component collected first
Functioning of simple breathalyzer
A glass tube filled with acidified potassium dichromate is blown into
If alcohol touches the dichromate, it reduces, causing the solution to turn green
Functioning of fuel cell breathalyzer
Ethanol is oxidized at the platinum anode
Electrons flow through the external circuit, creating current
The higher the alcohol concentration, the higher the current
Reduction: O2 + 4H+ → 2H2O
Oxidation: C2H5OH + H2O → CH3COOH + 4H+ + 4e-
Gas chromatography
A detection technique where the sample is evaporated and carried by an inert gas to create bands of vapor which can be analyzed on a chromatograph.