PSYC 1100 Final Exam

Definition of psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Critical thinking

Thinking reflectively and productively while evaluating evidence.

Biological/neuroscience approach

Emphasizes the body, especially the brain and nervous system.

Behavioral approach

Emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses.

Psychodynamic approach

Emphasizes unconscious thought and childhood experiences.

Humanistic approach

Emphasizes a person's positive qualities and capacity for growth.

Cognitive approach

Emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing and remembering.

Sociocultural approach

Emphasizes the ways social and cultural environments influence behavior.

Biopsychosocial approach

Integrates biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

Culture

The shared behavior, beliefs, and values of a specific group of people.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

A theory explains broad observations; a hypothesis is a testable prediction.

Descriptive research

Research that determines the basic dimensions of a phenomenon.

Case study

An in-depth look at a single individual.

Correlational research

Examines relationships between variables to determine if they are associated.

Correlation coefficient

A statistic ranging from -1.0 to 1.0 indicating strength and direction.

Experiment

A carefully regulated procedure where researchers manipulate one or more variables.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce preexisting differences.

Independent variable (IV)

The manipulated, influential experimental factor.

Dependent variable (DV)

The factor that can change in response to changes in the IV.

Experimental group

The participants who receive the drug or other treatment under study.

Control group

The participants treated like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor.

Plasticity

The brain's special capacity for modification and change.

Central nervous system

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Sympathetic nervous system

Arouses the body to mobilize it for action.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms the body down.

Stress

The response of individuals to environmental stressors.

Fight-or-flight reaction

The body's physiological response to threatening events.

Neurons

Nerve cells that handle information processing.

Dendrites

Tree-like fiber branches receiving and orienting info toward the cell body.

Axon

The part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body.

Myelin sheath

A layer of fat cells encasing and insulating most axons.

Synapse

Tiny spaces between neurons where communication happens.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances carrying information across synaptic gaps.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter controlling voluntary movement, reward, and sleep.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, and attention.

Limbic system

A set of subcortical structures important for memory and emotion.

Amygdala

Structure involved in discrimination of objects necessary for survival and fear.

Hippocampus

Structure active in the storage of memories.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain responsible for most complex mental functions.

Corpus callosum

The large bundle of axons connecting the brain's two hemispheres.

Sensation

The process of receiving stimulus energy from the external environment.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Bottom-up processing

Sensory receptors registering information and sending it to the brain.

Top-down processing

Starting with cognitive processing at the brain's higher levels.

Selective attention

Focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others.

Sensory adaptation

A change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on average level of surrounding stimulation.

Consciousness

An individual's awareness of external events and internal sensations.

Circadian rhythms

Daily behavioral or physiological cycles.

REM sleep

An active stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs.

Insomnia

The inability to sleep.

Tolerance

The need to take increasingly larger amounts of a drug to get the same effect.

Addiction

A physical or psychological dependence on a substance.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Behaviorism

A theory of learning focusing on observable behaviors.

Observational learning

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior.

Classical conditioning

Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Form of associative learning where consequences of behavior change its probability.

Reinforcement

The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a behavior will recur.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

Memory

The retention of information over time.

Encoding

The first step in memory; process by which information gets into storage.

Storage

Retention of information over time in memory.

Sensory memory

Holds sensory information from the world in its original sensory form for a brief instant.

Short-term memory

Limited-capacity memory system where information is retained for up to 30 seconds.

Long-term memory

Relatively permanent memory type storing huge amounts of info for a long time.

Retrieval

Memory process that occurs when information is retained in storage comes out of storage.

Cognition

The way in which the mind processes information.

Thinking

Manipulating information mentally by forming concepts and solving problems.

Algorithms

Strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem.

Heuristics

Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for and use information that supports one's ideas.

Intelligence

All-around ability to do well on cognitive tasks and learn from experience.

Development

The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life.

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature refers to biological inheritance; nurture to environmental experiences.

Object permanence

Piaget's term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist.

Motivation

The force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do.

Drive reduction theory

Explains motivation through drives arising from needs that create states of arousal.

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's theory that human needs must be satisfied in sequence.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs.

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments.

Emotion

Feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression.

Personality

A pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Id

Freudian structure of personality consisting of unconscious drives and a pool of psychic energy.

Ego

Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality.

Superego

Freudian structure of personality that serves as the harsh internal judge of behavior.

Defense mechanisms

Tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

Big Five Factors

Broad personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Social psychology

The study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people.

Bystander effect

The tendency of an individual to be less likely to help when others are present.

Stereotypes

Generalizations about a group that do not take into account individual differences.

Fundamental attribution error

Observers' overestimation of the importance of internal traits and underestimation of external situations.

Cognitive dissonance

An individual's psychological discomfort caused by two inconsistent thoughts.

Abnormal behavior

Behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful.

DSM-5

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders published by APA.

Psychotherapy

A nonmedical process helping individuals overcome psychological disorders.

Health psychology

A subfield of psychology emphasizing psychology's role in establishing and maintaining health.

Stages of Change Model

Conceives of change as a gradual process involving five stages.