Psychology unit 1 exam

Psychology

The scientific study of human behavior, including affect, behavior, and cognition.

Proximate Causes

Immediate causes of behavior, such as hormones, brain reactions, and cognitions.

Distal Causes

Longer-term causes of behavior, such as genes and evolutionary adaptations.

Evolutionary Perspective

Driven by adaptations due to natural and sexual selection.

Biological Perspective

Driven by biology, including hormones, genes, and neurotransmitters. ( Physiological psychology, biological psychology, psychobiology, psychobiology, psychophysiology, behavioral neuroscience)

Behaviorism

Driven by learned experiences, rejecting cognition; focuses on classical and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning (Behaviorism)

A learning process where a natural, automatic response becomes linked to a previously neutral environmental cue (pavlov’s dogs)

Operant conditioning (Behaviorism)

voluntary behavior modified by its environmental consequences through reinforcement and punishment (Giving a kid ice cream every time they eat vegetables without complaining, which will make them not complain anymore because they know that they’ll get ice cream)

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on how attention, memory, learning, and cognition affect behavior.

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on how behavior is influenced by other people, groups, norms, and culture.

Interactionist approach

Social behavior is a result of an individual and the situation they’re in.

Science

Creation of knowledge based on systematic empiricism, public verification, and the scientific method.

Systematic

Unbiased sample of phenomena

publicly verifiable

Findings must be produced publicly for review, scrutiny, critique, replication, and verification by others.

Goals of science

Describe, explain, predict behavior

Scientific method

Question, hypothesis, collect date, communication, develop theories, and theories

Empiricism

Phenomena are observable, experienced with senses.

primary source

Peer review: Golden standard because of the difficult process.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment.

Laboratory Observation

Watching animals or humans behave in a controlled laboratory setting.

Case Study

The study of one individual in great detail, providing tremendous depth but limited generalizability.

Self-Report Surveys

Researchers ask a series of questions to gather data from large numbers of people.

Correlational Research

Examines the relationship between two continuous variables, yielding a correlation coefficient (r).

Experimental Research

Examines whether one variable has a causal influence on another through manipulation and random assignment.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured by the experimenter, dependent on the IV.

Random Assignment

Process of assigning subjects to groups so each has an equal chance, controlling for confounding variables.

Psychiatrist

A medical doctor (MD or DO) who can prescribe medications.

Human Development

The scientific study of changes that occur in people as they age, from conception until death.

Cross-Sectional Design

Several different participant age groups studied at one specific time.

Longitudinal Design

One group of people studied at different times as the group ages.

Cross-Sequential Design

Participants are studied first cross-sectionally, then longitudinally.

Nature vs. Nurture

The age-old question of whether behavior is driven by biology/genetics or environment.

DNA

Molecules containing the genetic material of an organism.

Genes

Sections of DNA that determine traits through dominant or recessive inheritance.

Dominant genes

Actively controls the expression of a trait.

Recessive genes

Only influence the expression of a gene when paired with another recessive gene

Chromosomes

Tightly wound strands of DNA; humans have 46 (23 pairs).

Autosomes

22 pairs determine human characteristics (Appearance, build of body, sensory details)

Sex chromosomes

23rd pair determines the sex of an organism (XX is female, XY is male)

Fertilization

Happens when the sperm and the ovum unite, the sperm is the male sex cell, and the ovum is the female sex cell

Zygote

Cell that results from fertilization

Mitosis

Process where the zygote begins to divide until the mass of the cell becomes a baby

When does the germinal period occur and what happens in that time

First two weeks after fertilization and the zygote moves to the uterus and implants in the lining of the uterus)

Uterus

Organ that contains and protects developing organism. This is where the placenta and umbilical cord develop.

Placenta

Organ provides nourishment, and filters waste

Umbilical cord

Connects organism to the placenta

When does the embryonic period occur and what happens at this time?

two to eight weeks after fertilization and this is when major organs and structures develop, more importantly the embryo develops at this time.

Embryo

Developing organism

Critical period

Time when environmental influence can have the greatest impact on development

When is the fetal period

8 weeks-birth

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins occurring when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm.

Teratogens

Environmental factors that can cause birth defects during prenatal development.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations.

Schemas

Mental concepts that children develop through experience with new situations and events

Assimilation

Process of learning new things in terms of schemas they already possess

Accommodation

altering and changing old schemas to fit new information and experiences.

When does the sensorimotor stage occur and what happens in that stage?

Birth to two years. They use their senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment, object permanence, and symbolic thought begins

Object Permanence

The knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight (sensorimotor stage).

When does the preoperational stage occur, and what happens?

2-7 years old. They learn to use language in the world, inability to conserve logically reason, or consider the many characteristics of objects.

Conservation

Understanding that changing an object's appearance does not change its nature.

Centration

Focusing on one feature ignoring other relevant features.

When does the concrete operational stage occur? What happens in this stage?

7-12 years old. Children are capable of logical thought but not abstract thinking (Some literature would be too difficult for them to understand)

When does formal operations occur? What happens in this stage?

Ages 12-adulthood. They are capable of abstract thinking.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone vs. with help.

Scaffolding

Process where a skilled learner gives help and then reduces it as the learner becomes more capable.

Private Speech

Vygotsky believed it was a way that children speak out loud and Piaget believed it to be ego centric.