Sociology Study Guide: OpenStax 3e – Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering major terms and concepts from OpenStax Sociology 3e chapters on Social Stratification, Race and Ethnicity, Gender, Education, Work and the Economy, and Health.

Social stratification

A hierarchical system that ranks groups of people based on social categories such as class, race, or gender.

Caste system

A closed stratification system in which social position is fixed at birth and little to no mobility exists.

Class system

An open stratification system based primarily on economic position and allowing some social mobility.

Socioeconomic status (SES)

An individual’s or group’s position within a stratified social structure, based on income, education, and occupation.

Status consistency

The degree to which a person’s social positions across various dimensions, such as income and education, are similar.

Social mobility

Movement of individuals or groups within a stratification hierarchy.

Intergenerational mobility

Changes in social status between different generations within a family.

Intragenerational mobility

Changes in a person’s social position over their lifetime.

Structural mobility

Widespread societal changes that cause large numbers of people to move up or down the class ladder.

Upward mobility

An increase in social class or status.

Downward mobility

A decline in social class or status.

Meritocracy

A system in which advancement is based on individual ability or achievement.

Class traits

Typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each social class.

Davis-Moore thesis

Functionalist proposition that social inequality serves a purpose by ensuring the most qualified fill the most important roles.

American Dream

The cultural ideal that anyone can achieve success and upward mobility through hard work.

Relative poverty

A measure of poverty based on economic disparity within a society.

Absolute poverty

The inability to meet basic necessities of life such as food, shelter, and clothing.

Federal poverty line

The U.S. government’s officially defined minimum income for basic needs.

Working poor

People who have jobs yet remain below the poverty threshold.

Race

A socially constructed category based on perceived biological differences.

Ethnicity

A shared cultural heritage, such as language, ancestry, and traditions.

Prejudice

A preconceived, often negative, judgment about a category of people.

Discrimination

Unequal treatment of individuals based on group membership.

Institutional racism

Systemic policies and practices that create and maintain racial inequality.

Colorism

Prejudice or discrimination favoring lighter skin within a racial or ethnic group.

White privilege

Unearned advantages experienced by white people in a racially stratified society.

Assimilation

The process by which minorities adopt patterns of the dominant culture.

Pluralism

A state in which distinct ethnic and racial groups coexist while maintaining their cultural differences.

Multiculturalism

An ideology that values and encourages diverse cultural expressions.

Racial formation

The sociohistorical process by which racial categories are created, inhabited, transformed, and destroyed.

Dominant group

The group with the greatest power, privileges, and social status.

Intersectionality

Analytical framework that examines overlapping systems of oppression, such as race, gender, and class.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture by the standards of one’s own.

Segregation

Physical or social separation of categories of people.

Sex

Biological differences between males and females.

Gender

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities associated with being male, female, or nonbinary.

Gender identity

One’s internal sense of being male, female, both, neither, or somewhere along the gender spectrum.

Gender roles

Social expectations regarding appropriate behavior for men, women, and other genders.

Patriarchy

A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate roles of leadership and privilege.

Heteronormativity

The assumption that heterosexuality is the norm and superior to other sexual orientations.

Feminism

A movement and perspective advocating gender equality and challenging patriarchal structures.

Sexual orientation

Enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others.

Stigma

Social disapproval or disgrace attached to a characteristic or condition.

Manifest functions (education)

Intended, explicit purposes of schooling such as knowledge transmission.

Latent functions (education)

Unintended, implicit outcomes of schooling like social networking.

Hidden curriculum

Informal teaching of social norms, values, and roles in schools.

Educational inequality

Unequal distribution of academic resources and opportunities.

Tracking

Practice of placing students in curricular groups based on perceived ability.

Standardized testing

Uniform assessments used to measure student performance across schools.

School funding

Financial resources allocated to schools, often tied to local property taxes in the U.S.

Credentialism

Emphasis on formal qualifications over skills or experience.

Cultural capital

Non-economic assets such as language style and cultural knowledge that promote social mobility.

School-to-prison pipeline

Policies and practices that push students, especially marginalized youth, from schools into the criminal justice system.

Bilingual education

School programs that teach academic content in two languages.

Capitalism

Economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production and profit motive.

Socialism

Economic system in which the means of production are collectively owned and goods are distributed based on need.

Mixed economy

An economic system combining elements of capitalism and socialism.

Gig economy

Labor market characterized by short-term contracts and freelance work.

Automation

Use of technology to perform tasks previously done by human labor.

Deindustrialization

Decline of industrial activity in a region or economy.

Globalization

Increasing interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and populations.

Outsourcing

Contracting work to external or overseas firms to reduce costs.

Alienation

Worker’s feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from the product, process, and self.

Division of labor

Specialization of work tasks among different individuals.

Reserve labor force

Pool of potential workers who can be employed when demand rises.

Informal economy

Economic activities not regulated or taxed by the state.

Health disparities

Differences in health outcomes across social groups.

Medicalization

Process by which non-medical issues become defined and treated as medical problems.

Sick role

Social expectations about how individuals should behave when ill.

Universal care

Healthcare system guaranteeing coverage to all residents.

Medicaid

U.S. public health insurance program for low-income individuals.

Medicare

U.S. federal health insurance program for people aged 65 and older or with certain disabilities.

Mental health

Psychological and emotional well-being.

Access to care

Ability to obtain needed health services.