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What causes redness (rubor) in acute inflammation?

Increased blood flow due to vasodilation brings more oxygen and nutrients to the site.

What causes swelling (tumor) in acute inflammation?

Accumulation of fluid (exudate) in tissues from increased vascular permeability.

Why does heat (calor) occur at an inflamed site?

Increased blood flow and inflammatory response raise tissue temperature.

What leads to pain (dolor) in inflammation?

Chemical mediators like bradykinin and prostaglandins sensitize nerves, and swelling puts pressure on local nerves.

Why might there be a loss of function (functio laesa) during inflammation?

Pain, swelling, and tissue damage interfere with normal tissue function.

What is the role of vasodilation in acute inflammation?

Increases blood flow to the injured area.

How does increased permeability aid inflammation?

Allows proteins and WBCs to move into tissues, forming exudate.

What is the purpose of endothelial cell activation in inflammation?

Leads to adhesion molecule expression, aiding leukocyte migration.

What are adhesion molecules, and what do they do?

Integrins and selectins on endothelial cells help WBCs adhere to the vessel wall.

What role do chemokines play in inflammation?

Guide leukocytes to the injury site (chemotaxis).

What is the function of cytokines in inflammation?

Regulate immune response, activate leukocytes, and enhance inflammation.

What occurs during phagocytosis?

Leukocytes, especially neutrophils and macrophages, engulf and digest pathogens or debris.

What are vasoactive mediators, and give examples?

Histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins cause vasodilation and increased permeability.

What is the role of plasma proteases in inflammation?

Complement system and clotting factors help in defense and wound healing.

What is the purpose of chemotactic factors like C5a and IL-8?

Direct leukocyte migration.

What cytokines are involved in regulating inflammation?

TNF-α and IL-1.

How is acute inflammation characterized? Give an example.

Rapid onset, short duration, with neutrophil infiltration and exudate (e.g., appendicitis).

What defines chronic inflammation? Provide an example.

Longer duration, involving macrophages, lymphocytes, and fibroblasts (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis).

What causes fever during inflammation?

Cytokines like IL-1 and TNF-α trigger the hypothalamus to raise body temperature.

What does leukocytosis indicate in inflammation?

Increased WBC count, especially neutrophils, in acute inflammation.

What is the acute phase response in inflammation?

Increase in proteins like C-reactive protein (CRP) and fibrinogen.

What are labile cells and their regenerative capacity?

Continuously divide, like epithelial cells and bone marrow cells.

What are stable cells, and when can they regenerate?

Have low turnover but can regenerate when needed, e.g., hepatocytes.

What are permanent cells, and can they regenerate?

Cannot regenerate, like neurons and cardiac muscle cells.

What occurs in the inflammatory phase of wound healing?

Vasodilation, leukocyte migration to remove pathogens and debris.

What happens in the proliferative phase of wound healing?

Tissue growth, angiogenesis, epithelialization, and collagen deposition.

What characterizes the remodeling phase in wound healing?

Collagen is reorganized, and scar tissue matures, restoring tissue strength.

How does age impact wound healing?

Older adults have slower inflammatory and healing responses.

Why does malnutrition delay wound healing?

Impairs immune function and collagen synthesis.

What impact does ischemia and oxygen deprivation have on healing?

Hinders cellular processes essential for tissue repair.

How do foreign bodies affect wound healing?

Increase risk of infection and delay tissue regeneration.