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Cardinal Signs of Acute Inflammation

  1. What causes redness (rubor) in acute inflammation?

    • Increased blood flow due to vasodilation brings more oxygen and nutrients to the site.

  2. What causes swelling (tumor) in acute inflammation?

    • Accumulation of fluid (exudate) in tissues from increased vascular permeability.

  3. Why does heat (calor) occur at an inflamed site?

    • Increased blood flow and inflammatory response raise tissue temperature.

  4. What leads to pain (dolor) in inflammation?

    • Chemical mediators like bradykinin and prostaglandins sensitize nerves, and swelling puts pressure on local nerves.

  5. Why might there be a loss of function (functio laesa) during inflammation?

    • Pain, swelling, and tissue damage interfere with normal tissue function.

Vascular Changes in Acute Inflammatory Response

  1. What is the role of vasodilation in acute inflammation?

    • Increases blood flow to the injured area.

  2. How does increased permeability aid inflammation?

    • Allows proteins and WBCs to move into tissues, forming exudate.

  3. What is the purpose of endothelial cell activation in inflammation?

    • Leads to adhesion molecule expression, aiding leukocyte migration.

Leukocyte Adhesion, Migration, and Phagocytosis

  1. What are adhesion molecules, and what do they do?

    • Integrins and selectins on endothelial cells help WBCs adhere to the vessel wall.

  2. What role do chemokines play in inflammation?

    • Guide leukocytes to the injury site (chemotaxis).

  3. What is the function of cytokines in inflammation?

    • Regulate immune response, activate leukocytes, and enhance inflammation.

  4. What occurs during phagocytosis?

    • Leukocytes, especially neutrophils and macrophages, engulf and digest pathogens or debris.

Types of Inflammatory Mediators

  1. What are vasoactive mediators, and give examples?

    • Histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins cause vasodilation and increased permeability.

  2. What is the role of plasma proteases in inflammation?

    • Complement system and clotting factors help in defense and wound healing.

  3. What is the purpose of chemotactic factors like C5a and IL-8?

    • Direct leukocyte migration.

  4. What cytokines are involved in regulating inflammation?

    • TNF-α and IL-1.

Acute vs Chronic Inflammation

  1. How is acute inflammation characterized? Give an example.

    • Rapid onset, short duration, with neutrophil infiltration and exudate (e.g., appendicitis).

  2. What defines chronic inflammation? Provide an example.

    • Longer duration, involving macrophages, lymphocytes, and fibroblasts (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis).

Systemic Manifestations of Inflammation

  1. What causes fever during inflammation?

    • Cytokines like IL-1 and TNF-α trigger the hypothalamus to raise body temperature.

  2. What does leukocytosis indicate in inflammation?

    • Increased WBC count, especially neutrophils, in acute inflammation.

  3. What is the acute phase response in inflammation?

    • Increase in proteins like C-reactive protein (CRP) and fibrinogen.

Cell Types and Regeneration

  1. What are labile cells and their regenerative capacity?

    • Continuously divide, like epithelial cells and bone marrow cells.

  2. What are stable cells, and when can they regenerate?

    • Have low turnover but can regenerate when needed, e.g., hepatocytes.

  3. What are permanent cells, and can they regenerate?

    • Cannot regenerate, like neurons and cardiac muscle cells.

Wound Healing Process

  1. What occurs in the inflammatory phase of wound healing?

    • Vasodilation, leukocyte migration to remove pathogens and debris.

  2. What happens in the proliferative phase of wound healing?

    • Tissue growth, angiogenesis, epithelialization, and collagen deposition.

  3. What characterizes the remodeling phase in wound healing?

    • Collagen is reorganized, and scar tissue matures, restoring tissue strength.

Factors Affecting Wound Healing

  1. How does age impact wound healing?

    • Older adults have slower inflammatory and healing responses.

  2. Why does malnutrition delay wound healing?

    • Impairs immune function and collagen synthesis.

  3. What impact does ischemia and oxygen deprivation have on healing?

    • Hinders cellular processes essential for tissue repair.

  4. How do foreign bodies affect wound healing?

    • Increase risk of infection and delay tissue regeneration.