BIO 111 – Chapter 11 DNA Technology – Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from Chapter 11 DNA Technology, including genetic engineering basics, molecular tools, PCR, DNA profiling, stem cells, cloning, gene therapy, and modern vaccines.

Genetic Engineering

Direct manipulation of an organism’s DNA to add, delete, or alter specific genes.

Biotechnology

Use of living organisms or their products for practical purposes (medicine, agriculture, industry); genetic engineering is one tool within biotechnology.

Recombinant DNA

DNA molecule formed by combining DNA from two different species or sources.

Transgenic Organism

Organism that carries a gene or genes introduced from another species through recombinant DNA techniques.

cDNA (complementary DNA)

DNA synthesized from an mRNA template by reverse transcriptase; contains only exons (no introns).

RNA Polymerase

Enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template (DNA → RNA).

Reverse Transcriptase

Enzyme that synthesizes DNA from an RNA template (RNA → DNA).

Vector

Carrier DNA molecule (e.g., plasmid, virus) that transfers foreign DNA into a host cell.

Plasmid

Small, circular, self-replicating DNA molecule in bacteria, commonly used as a cloning vector.

Restriction Enzyme

Bacterial enzyme that cuts DNA at specific recognition sequences (restriction sites).

Restriction Site

Specific nucleotide sequence where a restriction enzyme makes a cut.

Sticky Ends

Single-stranded DNA overhangs created by staggered cuts of restriction enzymes, facilitating ligation.

DNA Ligase

Enzyme that joins DNA fragments by forming phosphodiester bonds; “glues” inserts into vectors.

Primer (Sequencing)

Short single-stranded DNA that provides a starting point for DNA polymerase during sequencing.

Normal Nucleotides (dNTPs)

Standard DNA building blocks that allow chain extension during sequencing reactions.

Terminator Nucleotides (ddNTPs)

Fluorescently-labeled nucleotides lacking a 3′-OH; halt DNA elongation, creating fragments of varying length for sequencing.

DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to a primer.

Laser (in Sequencing)

Detects fluorescent signals from terminator nucleotides as DNA fragments pass a detector, revealing sequence order.

Coding DNA

Portion of genome that contains exons encoding proteins.

Non-coding DNA

Genome regions that do not encode proteins (introns, promoters, intergenic DNA, etc.).

Protein-coding Proportion

About 1–2 % of human genomic DNA codes for proteins.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

In vitro technique that exponentially amplifies a specific DNA segment through repeated cycles of denaturation, annealing, and extension.

Amplify DNA

Produce many copies of a DNA fragment.

Denature DNA

Separate double-stranded DNA into single strands by breaking hydrogen bonds (heat in PCR).

Taq Polymerase

Heat-stable DNA polymerase from Thermus aquaticus used in PCR to synthesize DNA at high temperatures.

DNA Profiling / DNA Fingerprinting

Identifying individuals based on unique patterns in their DNA, typically using STR analysis.

Locus (plural: loci)

Specific physical location of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome.

STRs (Short Tandem Repeats)

Short, repetitive DNA sequences (2-6 bp) repeated in tandem; highly variable among individuals.

Variable DNA

Non-coding regions (e.g., STRs) are more variable than coding regions.

Gel Electrophoresis

Technique that separates DNA fragments by size as they migrate through an agarose gel in an electric field.

Agarose

Polysaccharide derived from seaweed used to form the gel matrix in electrophoresis.

Fragment Migration Rule

Smaller DNA fragments move farther through the gel than larger fragments under an electric field.

Electric Field (Electrophoresis)

Force generated by applying voltage; pulls negatively charged DNA toward the positive electrode.

Stem Cell

Undifferentiated cell capable of self-renewal and differentiating into specialized cell types.

Totipotent Stem Cell

Early embryonic cell that can generate an entire organism plus extra-embryonic tissues; example: zygote to morula cells.

Pluripotent Stem Cell

Embryonic stem cell that can form all body cell types but not extra-embryonic tissues; adult stem cells are usually multipotent, not pluripotent.

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT)

Cloning method where a nucleus from a somatic cell is transferred into an enucleated egg cell.

Enucleated Egg

Egg cell from which the nucleus has been removed.

Therapeutic (Tissue) Cloning

Creating cloned embryos to harvest stem cells for tissue or organ regeneration, not for producing a live organism.

DNA Probe

Short, labeled single-stranded DNA that hybridizes to a complementary sequence to detect specific genes.

Preconception Testing

Genetic screening of prospective parents to assess carrier status before pregnancy (in vivo in adults).

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)

Testing embryos created in vitro (IVF) for genetic defects before uterine implantation.

Prenatal / Post-Implantation Testing

In utero genetic testing of a developing fetus (e.g., amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling).

Newborn Screening (Post-Delivery)

Genetic tests performed on infants shortly after birth to detect treatable disorders (in vivo).

Gene Therapy

Medical technique that introduces, removes, or alters genes in a patient’s cells to treat or prevent disease.

Gene Silencing

Turning off expression of a harmful gene, often using RNA interference (RNAi) or antisense oligonucleotides.

Gene Editing

Precisely changing DNA sequence within the genome (adding, removing, or replacing bases).

CRISPR/Cas9

Genome-editing system using a guide RNA and Cas9 nuclease to create targeted double-strand breaks in DNA for editing.

Prime Editor

CRISPR-based tool that uses a Cas9 nickase fused to reverse transcriptase and a pegRNA to write new genetic information without double-strand breaks.

Traditional Vaccine

Uses inactivated pathogens, attenuated viruses, or viral proteins to stimulate an immune response and memory.

mRNA Vaccine

Delivers messenger RNA encoding a viral antigen (e.g., SARS-CoV-2 spike protein) so host cells produce the antigen and elicit immunity.

mRNA Vaccine Advantage

Rapid design/manufacture and no need to handle live virus.

mRNA Vaccine Disadvantage

Requires ultra-cold storage and may need boosters due to limited stability or immune duration.