AP Psych Exam Review

Gestalt

“The whole is bigger than the sum of its parts”

Biological Psychology

Understanding of mental processes and behavior through biological processes. Ex. Neurotransmitters, Neuroscience, etc. (Nature)

Evolutionary Psychology

Understanding of mental processes and behavior through the lens of natural selection. Ex. Survival of the Fittest, Genetics, etc. (Nature)

Behavioral Psychology

Understanding of mental processes and behavior through learning processes, and observable actions and responses. Ex. Conditioning, Reinforcement, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner etc. (Nurture).

Psychodynamic Psychology

Understanding of mental processes and behavior through unconscious motives and early childhood experiences. Ex. Repression, Defense Mechanisms, Sigmund Freud, etc. (Nature and Nurture).

Cognitive Psychology

Understanding of mental processes and behaviour focusing on how people think and process information. Ex. Attention, Memory, Elizabeth Loftus, Jean Piaget etc. (Nature and Nurture)

Humanistic Psychology

Understanding of mental processes and behaviour with an emphasis on human growth and potential Ex. Self-actualization, Maslow, Carl Rogers, etc. (Nurture)

Social-Cultural Psychology

Understanding of mental processes and behaviour by interpreting them in a social and cultural context Ex. Individualistic v Collectivist, etc. (Nurture)

Social-Cognitive Psychology

Understanding mental processes and behaviour by exploring how people perceive and think about information regarding themselves and others in social contexts. Ex. Attribution, Cognitive Dissonance, Albert Bandura, etc. (Nature and Nurture)

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Independent, specialized committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects to protect their rights, safety, and welfare.

The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Approves research on animals in scientific research.

Informed Consent

Researchers must inform potential participants of every aspect of the study that might influence their decision, and ensure participation is voluntary.

Limited Deception

Researchers must only deceive when necessary and tell participants about deception at the end of research

Confidentiality

Researchers must keep personal information a secret. Results can’t include such information

Protection from harm

Reasearchers must minimize discomfort/risk and act to prevent long term negative consequences

Debriefing

Researchers must reveal all relevant information about the research afterwards.

Hawthorne Effect

tendency of participants to change their behavior when they know they’re being observed.

Hindsight Bias

tendency to believe after learning about an outcome, that we would have known it all along.

Confirmation Bias

Looking for evidence supporting your beliefs and ignoring evidence disproving it.

Researcher Bias

tendency for researchers to unknowingly influence the outcome of the research

Operational Definition

Precise definition of a variable being observed so that it’s observable and measurable.

Naturalistic Observation

Study where researchers simply observe subjects in their natural setting without manipulating variables

Experiment

Study when researchers manipulate independent variables under controlled conditions to measure their effect on a dependent variable. Experimental group and Control group. BEST METHOD

Case Study

Intense examination of the behaviour and mental processes with a single person or situation. Usually an extraordinarily rare condition. Not very generalizable

Correlational Study

Research method that measure a statistical relationship between two or more quantitative variables without manipulating them. NO CAUSATIONAL RELATIONSHIP

Meta-analysis

Research method used to statistically combine the results of multiple independent studies on a particular topic.

Survey

Technique for assertaining self-reported attitudes by questioning a random sample of people

Quasi-Experiment

Have the same controls as an experiment but not random assignment of participants (usually due to ethics).

Random Assignment

randomly assign groups into control/experiment groups. Minimizing confounding variables

Placebo

Pseudotreatment, inert treatment that does nothing to patient

Confounding Variable

Any items other than the IV that can influence the DV

Single Blind Procedure

Only the participants aren’t aware of which group they’re in. Experimental or Control

Double Blind Procedure

Neither the participants nor the researchers know which group participants are in. Experimental or Control

Dendrites

part of neuron that receive and integrate information conducting it towards the cell body

Axon

part of neuron that passes message through to terminal branches. Lengthy fiber

Myelin Sheath

fatty tissue that insulates and protects the axon. Also speeds up impulses.

Terminal Buds

part of neuron that send impulses to other neurons

Resting Potential

When a neuron isn’t firing, and has a negative charge with K+ on the inside and Na+ on the outside. Polarized

Action Potential

Neuron fires electrical pulse that travels the axon. All or nothing. Depolarization, Na+ rushes in and neutralizes section of axon.

Synapse

Empty space between neurons where reactions happen between terminal buds and receptor sites through neurotransmitters.

Agonist

Outside substance that mimic neurotransmitter activity. Fitting in receptor site exactly the same. Ex. Morphine (for Endorphins), Diazepam (for GABA).

Antagonist

Outside substances that block neurotransmitter activity. Fits in receptor site to block neurotransmitters. Ex. Botox (for Acetycholine), Narcan

Central Nervous System

Brain and Spine. Brain - neural center of body, Spine - “highway” of nerves, transmits messages to and from the brain.

Peripheral Nervous System

consists of all nerves branching from the brain and spinal cord. Connects CNS to muscles, organs, limbs

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the Central Nervous System. Physically arouses the body preparing it to act in stressful situations. Initiates Fight or Flight. Inhibits digestion, Dilates Pupils, etc.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the Central Nervous System. Calms the body down and conserves energy, keeping constant internal state. Initiates Rest and Digest, Stimulates digestion

Autonomous Nervous System

Part of the Peripheral Nervous System. Controls involuntary functions. Ex. Breathing, Heartbeat, etc.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the Peripheral Nervous System. Controls voluntary movements and communication to and from sense organs.

Sensory Neurons

Afferent. carries information from sense receptors to CNS

Interneurons

the only neurons in the CNS. They act and intermediaries connecting sensory neurons to motor neurons.

Motor Neurons

Efferent. Type of neuron carrying outgoing information from CNS to nervous system and muscles.

Brain Lesions

Destroyed piece of brain tissue. Can be used to study behaviour after such destruction

Electroencephalogram

Method to study the brain. Amplified recording of the electrical waves sweeping the brain’s surface

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Method to study the brain. Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among types of brain tissue

PET (Positron Emmission Tomography) Scan

Method to study the brain. Patients ingest a radioactive form of sugar, and the emissions are used to study metabolic processes in the brain.

CAT/CT Scan (Computerized Tomography)

Method to study the brain. Combines x-ray images to examine the brain.

fMRI

Method to study the brain. Measure changes associated with blood flow.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left and right Hemispheres of the brain

Medulla

Part of the Brain Stem. controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

Part of the Brain Stem. Controls facial expressions and sleep. Connects different regions together

Thalamus

Part of the Brain Stem. the brain’s sensory switchboard, directs messages to sensory recieving areas in the cortex.

Recticular Formation

Part of the Brain Stem. Nerve network in the brainstem that has a big role in controlling arousal. Can block out info/signals.

Cerebellum

Part of the Brain Stem. Coordinates voluntary and gross(large) movements. Forms implicit memory

The Limbic System

Set of brain structures located on sides of thalamus. They control emotion, behaviour, learning, memory, and motivation. Center of the brain.

Amygdala

Part of the Limbic System. Two almond-shaped neural clusters linked to emotions, and fight or flight

Hypothalamus

Part of the Limbic System. neural structure below the thalamus. Directs eating/drinking, sex drive, and body temperature. Governs the endocrine system via pituitary gland

Hippocampus

Part of the Limbic System. A structure linked to explicit memory and encoding long-term memory

Pituitary Gland

Part of the Limbic System. Controls the endocrine system, hormones

Frontal Lobe

Part of the Cerebral Cortex. In charge of thinking, creativity, judgment, personality.

Motor Cortex

Part of the Cerebral Cortex. At the back of the frontal lobe, controls movement.

Parietal Lobe

Part of the Cerebral Cortex. In charge of body position, spatial reasoning, and temperature

Sensory Cortex

Part of the Cerebral Cortex. At the front of the Parietal Lobe. controls senses

Temporal Lobe

Part of the Cerebral Cortex. In charge of hearing, speech/language, long term memory,

Occipital Lobe

Part of the Cerebral Cortex. In charge of vision and seeing. Early in development

Wernicke’s Area

Association area. In left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension and expression. Damage here causes Fluent Aphasia

Broca’s Area

Association area. Left intersection of frontal lobe and sensorimotor cortex. Responsible for the motor movement involved in speech. Damage here causes Non-Fluent Aphasia

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to continuously change due to its use. Functions can be relocated to other areas. Decreases with age.

Circadian Rhythm

A light-sensitive 24 hour cycle involving sleepiness and wakefulness.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

“Paradoxical sleep”. Increased brain activity during sleep. Dreaming

Somnambulism

Moving/walking in stage 3 sleep.

Transduction

Process in sensation where electromagnetic signals are converted to electrochemical signals for our brain to comprehend.

Bottom-up Processing

Analysis of a stimulus starting with it’s basic components and works up to a final complex understanding. Extremely slow

Top-down processing

Analysis of a stimulus when the brain uses existing knowledge and experiences to interpret incoming sensory information. Faster

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Difference Threshold/ Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)

Minimum change between 2 stimuli required for detection.

Weber’s Law

The size of Just-Noticeable Difference is proportional to the intensity of the first stimulus. Exponential relationship

Subliminal Threshold

When stimuli is detected but below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

Interpositive

Monocular cue for perception. Objects that occlude(block) others are perceived as closer.

Linear Perspective

Monocular cue for perception. Parallel line tend to converge with distance.

Relative Size

Monocular cue for perception. A smaller object is perceived as farther away

Covergence

Binocular cue for perception. The more you two eyes have to move inward to focus an object the closer it is

Retinal Disparity

Binocular cue for perception. The greater the images from your two eyes differ the closer something is

Phi Phenomenon

When light flashes at a certain speed to create an illusion of movement.

Perceptual Set

A tendency to perceive some stimuli while ignoring others. Influenced by expectations and experiences.

Schema

List of characteristics of an object that allows us to characterize future, unfamiliar information.