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emotion
subjective feelings associated w/ physical stress coordinated by the limbic system, expressed through facial muscles
component process theory
differences among emotions reflect how people differently appraise a situation and respond to it
sham rage
angry behavior and physiological correlates due to lesions of cerebral hemispheres; caudal hypothalamus needed
Duchenne smile
activation of the obicularis oculi uniquely in genuine, involuntary happuness
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
behavioral changes (visual agnosia, hyperactivity, hypersexuality, tameness, lack of fear) from removal of medial temporal lobe (amygdala)
amygdala
site of learning about fearful stimuli, emotional LTP location
Ubrach Wiethe disease
neurological disorder causing highly selective amygdala damage leading to inability to recognize fear and limited fear concept
depression
most common & debilitating mental disorder, affecting 10-25% of women, 5-12% of men
language
ability to associate arbitrary symbols w/ specific meanings to express thoughts and emotions in speech or writing
formant
natural resonance of the larynx (500 Hz, 1500 Hz, and 2500 Hz), which can be measured w/ a vocal chart
phone
basic speech sound eliciting a phoneme
phoneme
any distinctive sound in language (individual vowel/consonant sound)
aphasia
diminished/abolished ability to understand/produce language, while sparing the ability to perceive relevant stimuli; includes Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and conduction
Broca’s aphasia
damage to the L frontal lobe affecting the ability to produce language efficiently; speech is impaired, but comprehension is intact
Wernicke’s aphasia
damage to the L posterior temporal lobe causes inability to understand spoken language; speech production intact, comprehension impaired
conduction aphasia
arcuate fasiculus damage causes inability to produce appropriate responses to a heard communication, even though it is understood
Wada test
invasive test of language lateralization, where short acting anesthetic is injected into L carotid artery to transiently anesthetize L hemisphere, inhibiting speech production & right side movement; when repeated on R, speech intact
tachistoscoptic stimulus presentation
noninvasive language lateralization test where a stimulus is shown to one side of visual field
aprosodia
deficiency in speech prosody associated w/ R hemisphere damage in Broca’s and Wernicke’s area
dyslexia
learning disorder involving difficulty reading due to problems IDing speech sounds and learning how they related to letters and words; correlated w/ less VWFA activation
visual form word area
L brain region activated by written language, affected by dyslexia
critical period
time of increased sensitivity of neural plasticity that supports behavior (such as language learning <7)
reward prodiction error
difference between expected and actual dopamine release due to the presence of a reward
positive reward prediction error
dopamine signal conveying that the outcome of an event was better than expected
negative reward prediction error
dopamine signal conveying that the outcome of an event was worse than expected
orbitofrontal cortex
brain region which estimates the value of a reward subjectively based on past and present info, working with the vmPFC to calculate common currency to inform decision making
ventral striatum
BG region associated with dopamine reward system
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
brain region which supports flexible, future oriented behavior & planning by making other groups of neurons more/less responsive to input and feedback to produce context specific responses; damage causes patients to have difficulty adapting to new circumstances, such as in Wisconsin card switching task
anterior cingulate cortex
brain region evaluating outcome of decisions and updating connections between stimulus inputs and behavioral outputs; activated by disappointment (mine must be huge), surprise, conflict, and pain; atypical firing associated w/ OCD
Stroop effect
it is more difficult to read a color word where the color of that word conflicts; ACC activity is enhanced
ventrolateral prefrontal cortex
brain region supporting ability to withhold behavioral responses; damage = faster, but less accurate decision tasks; lesions can be treated w/ TMS so brain can suppress undesired responses
insula
brain region providing info about internal body states regulating decision making
posterior cingulate cortex
brain region linked to awareness of selves as part of world
circadian cycle
melanopsin → thalamic SCN → paraventricular nucleus → spinal cord intermediolateral cells → superior cervical ganglion → pineal gland → melatonin synthesis; responsible for sleep/wake cycle, fluctuates to be > or < 24 hrs
sleep
reversible state of perceptual disengagement from unresponsiveness to the environment; necessary for energy conservation, survival, consolidation of memory, and clearance of brain metabolic waste
N1
transition from wakefulness to sleepiness; EEG waves show lower frequency, higher amplitude; low arousal threshold; slow rolling eye movements
N2
sleep stage marked by sleep spindles, lowest frequency, highest amplitude, K complexes, in EEG; high stimuli needed for arousal
sleep spindle
10-12 Hz burst of EEG activity lasting 1-2s during depolarized phase of slow oscillation; caused by reticular nucleus of the thalamus neurons hyper polarizing thalamocortical cells, causing rebound activity burst
N3
slow wave sleep, w/ increasingly less spindles; makes by delta waves in EEG until dreaming occurs (then beta); high stimuli needed for arousal
R
sleep stage marked by rapid, ballistic eye movements, pupillary constriction, paralysis of large muscle groups, and twitching of smaller muscles; ~ EEG to awake state but w/ pontine-geniculate-occipital waves & hyperpolarization of spinal cord MNs, high dream prevalence
pontine-geniculate occipital waves
phasic bursts of APs throughout forebrain in REM sleep
midbrain-pons junction
area including reticular activation system which promotes wakefulness when electrically stimulated
locus coeruleus
brainstem nuclei activated by noradrenaline responsible for wakefulness, excited by histamine, Wellbutrin, and cocaine, inhibited by antihistamines
cholinergic nuclei
brainstem nuclei activated by acetylcholine responsible for REM; excited by histamine, Wellbutrin, and cocaine, inhibited by antihistamines
Ralphe nuclei
brainstem nuclei activated by serotonin; promotes wakefulness at high and REM at low concentrations; ac
tuberomammillary nucleus
hypothalamic region activated by orexin which produces histamine to activate the locus coeruleus and Ralphe nuclei; inhibited by GABA from the VPLO
parasomnia
change in behavior during sleep, such as sleep walking, talking, confusional arousal, night terrors, REM behavior disorder, etc.; long episodes cause change in EEG to active (~ to awake/REM)
REM behavior disorder
parasomnia caused by impaired inhibition of the MNs during sleep
intrinsic bursting state
gate to the cortex closed, synced EEG - higher amplitude, lower f
ventrolateral preoptic nucleus
brain region that produces GABA to inhibit the brainstem in the cholinergic nuclei & the tuberomammillary nucleus of the thalamus, causing sleep
lateral hypothalamus
brain region that produces orexin to activate the brainstem, inducing wakefulness
attention
cognitive function focusing on stimulus at the expense of fully processing other info; controlled by frontal, parietal lobes, & superior colliculi of the brainstem
selective processing
attention causing the allocation of neural resources to the analysis of particular info at the expense of other resources allocated to concurrent info, including dichotic listening task
cross modal workspace theory
objects paid attention to consciously were represented in multiple neural regions; stimuli only staying in one brain region stays unconscious
endogenous attention
conscious, goal directed attention to a particular aspect of the environment; top down; facilitates processing w/ RT of 300 ms - a few s; can be tested via Posner cueing task and Stroop task; uses IPS and FEF
Posner cueing task
experiment that found that we process info faster when we are looking at the correct location (valid trials); assesses endogenous attention
exogenous attention
attention is attracted automatically due to unpredictable environmental stimuli; bottom up; processing speed of ~75ms, if too long delay, inhibition of return; uses TPJ & VFC
overt attention
orienting head and eyes to a stimulus, aligning visual and auditory info & improving perception
covert attention
even fixating gaze on particular visual field point, good for being sneaky, easier for auditory stimuli
supramodal attention
stimuli in 1 modality concurrently stimulates focusing in another modality
frontal eye fields
frontal lobe region which initiates eye movements to targets in CL visual field, directs attention to CL side, task switches; stimulation increases neuronal activity in V4 and attentional task performance
pulvinar nucleus
thalamic region connecting the superior colliculi to the parietal cortex
Sprague effect
phenomenon that the L superior colliculus is able to compensate for hemispatial neglect caused by R parietal cortex
Ballaint syndrome
dorsal posterior parietal and lateral occipital cortex damage causing simultagnosia, optic ataxia, and oculomotor apraxia; patients cannot attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously, regardless of location
default mode network
group of brain regions (medial PFC, TPJ, posterior cingulate cortex) responsible for not engaging in a specific task
central executive network
group of brain regions (frontoparietal attention regions, IPS, and vPFC) required for problem solving
memory
ability to store info from past experiences and retrieve it; can manifest both as conscious recollection (declarative) or changes in behavior (non-declarative)
learning
process through which new info is acquired by the CNS
habituation
learning to ignore a novel stimulus
sensitization
heightened response from a harmful stimulus
synaptic pruning
early in NS development, unneeded synaptic connections are destroyed between cells
declarative memory
memories that can verbally be told to someone; involves medial temporal lobe; includes semantic & episodic memory
semantic memory
declarative memory consisting of concepts and knowledge
episodic memory
autobiographical declarative memory
non-declarative memory
memory that cannot be consciously recalled; includes priming (neocortex), associative learning, and procedural memory (striatum)
sensory memory
temporal memory category lasting ~1s, longer linked w/ photographic memory
working memory
short term temporal memory lasting seconds to minutes; related to attention, language reasoning, problem solving; limited in duration & capacity
long term memory
temporal memory category lasting >1 day
consolidation
progressive stabilization of memories following initial encoding of memory; conversion of STM→LTM; occurs often in sleep
engram
physical embodiment of memory in neural machinery, including changes in efficacy of synaptic connections, growth, or reordering
amneisia
pathological process of forgetting
retrograde amnesia
forgetting episodic memory that occurred before brain damage
anterograde amnesia
inability to make new memories after brain damage
medial temporal structures
group of brain regions which encode and consolidate declarative memories
place cell
hippocampus neuron that fires upon traversing a specific place
grid cell
brain GPS in entorhinal cortex that fires when you are in a place relative to other points in space; dividing space into hexagons
neocortex
6 layered motor & visual cortices, cell density & type varies by layer
paleocortex
3 layered pyriform cortex
cytoarchitecture
study of the CNS cellular composition tissues under microscope
myeloarchitecture
structure of the myelin under microscope
columnar connection
intracortical vertical connection
lateral connection
intracortical horizontal connection; used for interneurons w/in layers
association cortex
region of the cerebral cortex excluding the sensory and motor primary cortices
cholinergic subcortical nuclei
brainstem & basal ganglia region projecting acetylcholine responsible for memory, learning, & attention
dopaminergic subcortical nuclei
midbrain region projecting dopamine responsible for motivation and thus pleasure, salience, motivation, and reward learning
noradrenergic subcortical nuclei
brainstem region projecting noradrenaline responsible for wakefulness & stress
parietal association cortex
dorsal brain region responsible for attention, perceptual awareness, and integration of sensory info; lesions = contralateral hemineglect syndrome (spatial neglect)
intraparietal sulcus
region of the parietal association cortex projecting to: premotor area, FEFs, & prefrontal area; controls ocular movements, upper extremities (reaching & grasping), & spatial working memory, also responsible for attention
inferior parietal lobule & precuneus
regions of the parietal association cortex projecting to the parahippocampal cortex & entohinal cortex responsible for hippocampal function→LTM formation
temporal association cortex
ventral brain region responsible for categorization, recognition, & semantic memory containing FFA, VWFA, anterior pole