Final

emotion

subjective feelings associated w/ physical stress coordinated by the limbic system, expressed through facial muscles

component process theory

differences among emotions reflect how people differently appraise a situation and respond to it

sham rage

angry behavior and physiological correlates due to lesions of cerebral hemispheres; caudal hypothalamus needed

Duchenne smile

activation of the obicularis oculi uniquely in genuine, involuntary happuness

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

behavioral changes (visual agnosia, hyperactivity, hypersexuality, tameness, lack of fear) from removal of medial temporal lobe (amygdala)

amygdala

site of learning about fearful stimuli, emotional LTP location

Ubrach Wiethe disease

neurological disorder causing highly selective amygdala damage leading to inability to recognize fear and limited fear concept

depression

most common & debilitating mental disorder, affecting 10-25% of women, 5-12% of men

language

ability to associate arbitrary symbols w/ specific meanings to express thoughts and emotions in speech or writing

formant

natural resonance of the larynx (500 Hz, 1500 Hz, and 2500 Hz), which can be measured w/ a vocal chart

phone

basic speech sound eliciting a phoneme

phoneme

any distinctive sound in language (individual vowel/consonant sound)

aphasia

diminished/abolished ability to understand/produce language, while sparing the ability to perceive relevant stimuli; includes Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and conduction

Broca’s aphasia

damage to the L frontal lobe affecting the ability to produce language efficiently; speech is impaired, but comprehension is intact

Wernicke’s aphasia

damage to the L posterior temporal lobe causes inability to understand spoken language; speech production intact, comprehension impaired

conduction aphasia

arcuate fasiculus damage causes inability to produce appropriate responses to a heard communication, even though it is understood

Wada test

invasive test of language lateralization, where short acting anesthetic is injected into L carotid artery to transiently anesthetize L hemisphere, inhibiting speech production & right side movement; when repeated on R, speech intact

tachistoscoptic stimulus presentation

noninvasive language lateralization test where a stimulus is shown to one side of visual field

aprosodia

deficiency in speech prosody associated w/ R hemisphere damage in Broca’s and Wernicke’s area

dyslexia

learning disorder involving difficulty reading due to problems IDing speech sounds and learning how they related to letters and words; correlated w/ less VWFA activation

visual form word area

L brain region activated by written language, affected by dyslexia

critical period

time of increased sensitivity of neural plasticity that supports behavior (such as language learning <7)

reward prodiction error

difference between expected and actual dopamine release due to the presence of a reward

positive reward prediction error

dopamine signal conveying that the outcome of an event was better than expected

negative reward prediction error

dopamine signal conveying that the outcome of an event was worse than expected

orbitofrontal cortex

brain region which estimates the value of a reward subjectively based on past and present info, working with the vmPFC to calculate common currency to inform decision making

ventral striatum

BG region associated with dopamine reward system

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

brain region which supports flexible, future oriented behavior & planning by making other groups of neurons more/less responsive to input and feedback to produce context specific responses; damage causes patients to have difficulty adapting to new circumstances, such as in Wisconsin card switching task

anterior cingulate cortex

brain region evaluating outcome of decisions and updating connections between stimulus inputs and behavioral outputs; activated by disappointment (mine must be huge), surprise, conflict, and pain; atypical firing associated w/ OCD

Stroop effect

it is more difficult to read a color word where the color of that word conflicts; ACC activity is enhanced

ventrolateral prefrontal cortex

brain region supporting ability to withhold behavioral responses; damage = faster, but less accurate decision tasks; lesions can be treated w/ TMS so brain can suppress undesired responses

insula

brain region providing info about internal body states regulating decision making

posterior cingulate cortex

brain region linked to awareness of selves as part of world

circadian cycle

melanopsin → thalamic SCN → paraventricular nucleus → spinal cord intermediolateral cells → superior cervical ganglion → pineal gland → melatonin synthesis; responsible for sleep/wake cycle, fluctuates to be > or < 24 hrs

sleep

reversible state of perceptual disengagement from unresponsiveness to the environment; necessary for energy conservation, survival, consolidation of memory, and clearance of brain metabolic waste

N1

transition from wakefulness to sleepiness; EEG waves show lower frequency, higher amplitude; low arousal threshold; slow rolling eye movements

N2

sleep stage marked by sleep spindles, lowest frequency, highest amplitude, K complexes, in EEG; high stimuli needed for arousal

sleep spindle

10-12 Hz burst of EEG activity lasting 1-2s during depolarized phase of slow oscillation; caused by reticular nucleus of the thalamus neurons hyper polarizing thalamocortical cells, causing rebound activity burst

N3

slow wave sleep, w/ increasingly less spindles; makes by delta waves in EEG until dreaming occurs (then beta); high stimuli needed for arousal

R

sleep stage marked by rapid, ballistic eye movements, pupillary constriction, paralysis of large muscle groups, and twitching of smaller muscles; ~ EEG to awake state but w/ pontine-geniculate-occipital waves & hyperpolarization of spinal cord MNs, high dream prevalence

pontine-geniculate occipital waves

phasic bursts of APs throughout forebrain in REM sleep

midbrain-pons junction

area including reticular activation system which promotes wakefulness when electrically stimulated

locus coeruleus

brainstem nuclei activated by noradrenaline responsible for wakefulness, excited by histamine, Wellbutrin, and cocaine, inhibited by antihistamines

cholinergic nuclei

brainstem nuclei activated by acetylcholine responsible for REM; excited by histamine, Wellbutrin, and cocaine, inhibited by antihistamines

Ralphe nuclei

brainstem nuclei activated by serotonin; promotes wakefulness at high and REM at low concentrations; ac

tuberomammillary nucleus

hypothalamic region activated by orexin which produces histamine to activate the locus coeruleus and Ralphe nuclei; inhibited by GABA from the VPLO

parasomnia

change in behavior during sleep, such as sleep walking, talking, confusional arousal, night terrors, REM behavior disorder, etc.; long episodes cause change in EEG to active (~ to awake/REM)

REM behavior disorder

parasomnia caused by impaired inhibition of the MNs during sleep

intrinsic bursting state

gate to the cortex closed, synced EEG - higher amplitude, lower f

ventrolateral preoptic nucleus

brain region that produces GABA to inhibit the brainstem in the cholinergic nuclei & the tuberomammillary nucleus of the thalamus, causing sleep

lateral hypothalamus

brain region that produces orexin to activate the brainstem, inducing wakefulness

attention

cognitive function focusing on stimulus at the expense of fully processing other info; controlled by frontal, parietal lobes, & superior colliculi of the brainstem

selective processing

attention causing the allocation of neural resources to the analysis of particular info at the expense of other resources allocated to concurrent info, including dichotic listening task

cross modal workspace theory

objects paid attention to consciously were represented in multiple neural regions; stimuli only staying in one brain region stays unconscious

endogenous attention

conscious, goal directed attention to a particular aspect of the environment; top down; facilitates processing w/ RT of 300 ms - a few s; can be tested via Posner cueing task and Stroop task; uses IPS and FEF

Posner cueing task

experiment that found that we process info faster when we are looking at the correct location (valid trials); assesses endogenous attention

exogenous attention

attention is attracted automatically due to unpredictable environmental stimuli; bottom up; processing speed of ~75ms, if too long delay, inhibition of return; uses TPJ & VFC

overt attention

orienting head and eyes to a stimulus, aligning visual and auditory info & improving perception

covert attention

even fixating gaze on particular visual field point, good for being sneaky, easier for auditory stimuli

supramodal attention

stimuli in 1 modality concurrently stimulates focusing in another modality

frontal eye fields

frontal lobe region which initiates eye movements to targets in CL visual field, directs attention to CL side, task switches; stimulation increases neuronal activity in V4 and attentional task performance

pulvinar nucleus

thalamic region connecting the superior colliculi to the parietal cortex

Sprague effect

phenomenon that the L superior colliculus is able to compensate for hemispatial neglect caused by R parietal cortex

Ballaint syndrome

dorsal posterior parietal and lateral occipital cortex damage causing simultagnosia, optic ataxia, and oculomotor apraxia; patients cannot attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously, regardless of location

default mode network

group of brain regions (medial PFC, TPJ, posterior cingulate cortex) responsible for not engaging in a specific task

central executive network

group of brain regions (frontoparietal attention regions, IPS, and vPFC) required for problem solving

memory

ability to store info from past experiences and retrieve it; can manifest both as conscious recollection (declarative) or changes in behavior (non-declarative)

learning

process through which new info is acquired by the CNS

habituation

learning to ignore a novel stimulus

sensitization

heightened response from a harmful stimulus

synaptic pruning

early in NS development, unneeded synaptic connections are destroyed between cells

declarative memory

memories that can verbally be told to someone; involves medial temporal lobe; includes semantic & episodic memory

semantic memory

declarative memory consisting of concepts and knowledge

episodic memory

autobiographical declarative memory

non-declarative memory

memory that cannot be consciously recalled; includes priming (neocortex), associative learning, and procedural memory (striatum)

sensory memory

temporal memory category lasting ~1s, longer linked w/ photographic memory

working memory

short term temporal memory lasting seconds to minutes; related to attention, language reasoning, problem solving; limited in duration & capacity

long term memory

temporal memory category lasting >1 day

consolidation

progressive stabilization of memories following initial encoding of memory; conversion of STM→LTM; occurs often in sleep

engram

physical embodiment of memory in neural machinery, including changes in efficacy of synaptic connections, growth, or reordering

amneisia

pathological process of forgetting

retrograde amnesia

forgetting episodic memory that occurred before brain damage

anterograde amnesia

inability to make new memories after brain damage

medial temporal structures

group of brain regions which encode and consolidate declarative memories

place cell

hippocampus neuron that fires upon traversing a specific place

grid cell

brain GPS in entorhinal cortex that fires when you are in a place relative to other points in space; dividing space into hexagons

neocortex

6 layered motor & visual cortices, cell density & type varies by layer

paleocortex

3 layered pyriform cortex

cytoarchitecture

study of the CNS cellular composition tissues under microscope

myeloarchitecture

structure of the myelin under microscope

columnar connection

intracortical vertical connection

lateral connection

intracortical horizontal connection; used for interneurons w/in layers

association cortex

region of the cerebral cortex excluding the sensory and motor primary cortices

cholinergic subcortical nuclei

brainstem & basal ganglia region projecting acetylcholine responsible for memory, learning, & attention

dopaminergic subcortical nuclei

midbrain region projecting dopamine responsible for motivation and thus pleasure, salience, motivation, and reward learning

noradrenergic subcortical nuclei

brainstem region projecting noradrenaline responsible for wakefulness & stress

parietal association cortex

dorsal brain region responsible for attention, perceptual awareness, and integration of sensory info; lesions = contralateral hemineglect syndrome (spatial neglect)

intraparietal sulcus

region of the parietal association cortex projecting to: premotor area, FEFs, & prefrontal area; controls ocular movements, upper extremities (reaching & grasping), & spatial working memory, also responsible for attention

inferior parietal lobule & precuneus

regions of the parietal association cortex projecting to the parahippocampal cortex & entohinal cortex responsible for hippocampal function→LTM formation

temporal association cortex

ventral brain region responsible for categorization, recognition, & semantic memory containing FFA, VWFA, anterior pole