AP Psychology Unit 5

Information Processing Model

1) brain must receive info in a usable form in order to maintain it in consciousness
2) manipulation and rehearsal of info so it can be stored
3) retrieval of info, recalling stored memories

Rehearsal

preparation for a forthcoming event or confrontation that is anticipated with some level of discomfort or anxiety

Retrieval

the process of recovering or locating information stored in memory

Parallel Processing

interpreting numerous events and stimuli at the same time

Dual Processing

aka parallel processing

Sensory Memory

we process everything we sense, an activity that takes less than a second to several seconds

Iconic Memory

fleeting visual images in sensory memory
- leaves our brains unless we pay attention to it
- if we don’t it is lost.

Echoic Memory

auditory signals in sensory memory
- leaves our brains unless we pay attention to it
- if we don’t it is lost.

Short-Term Memory

small amounts of info stored up to 30 seconds or so
- sensitive and vulnerable to interruptions or interference

Long-Term Memory

final stage; memory that can store info indefinitely based on its relative importance to the individual
- stimuli must be encoded for storage, or rehearsed enough

Encoding

taking stimuli from the environment and converting it into a form or construct that the brain can understand and use
- takes place by comparing new info to info previously learned.
- if stimuli is not encoded it is forgotten

Episodic Memories

stories of our lives and experiences that we can recall and tell to someone else

Semantic Memories

impersonal memories that are not drawn from personal experience but from everyday, common kinds of knowledge
ex: names of colors, states, etc

Procedural Memories

memories of how to do something
ex: riding a bike, baking, other learned stuff

Automatic Processing

info processing of much repeated or well-learned activities that occurs without us being aware of it

Implicit Memories (Nondeclarative)

we retain without conscious effort and often without our awareness
- unconsciously retrieved
- you can SHOW others

Priming

using cues to activate hidden memories
- how we retrieve implicit memories from our long-term memories

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort ;make an effort to learn it

Explicit Memories (Declarative)

recalled clearly in detail; facts and experiences we consciously know and can declare
- you can TELL others

Working Memory

short term memory; limitation to info it can retain and limited time frame in which the info can be recalled (about 10-20 seconds)

Chunking

combining or grouping bits of related info

Maintenance Rehearsal

repeating info to prolong its presence in short term memory
- can increase the length time info can be stored in short term memory to about 30 secs

Shallow Processing

trying to learn ideas on superficial level, only memorizing
- tend to forget things quickly using this

Elaborative Rehearsal

linking new info with existing memories and knowledge in long term memory
- transfers short term memory to long term memory
- remember more effectively

Deep Processing

involves elaborative rehearsal along with a meaningful analysis of the ideas and words being learned

Recognition

correct identification of previously learned material

Recall

direct retrieval of facts or info

State-Dependent Memories

memory retrieval is more efficient when individuals are in the same state of consciousness, such as under the influence or a mind-altering substance, as they were when the memory was formed

Mood-Dependent Memories

- recall of info that can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was required
- happens only when the moods are genuine and authentic, not temporary

Tip-of-the-Tongue

feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable

Serial Position Effect

occurs when people recall the first and last items in a list more easily than the middle

Primacy Effect

tendency of the first item to be remembered best

Recency Effect

tendency to remember the most recently presented items best

Eidetic Memory

when a person (usually child) has visual images clear enough to be retained for at least 30 seconds and realistic in their vividness
- like photographic memory

Long-Term Potentiation

a lasting strengthening of the synapses that increases neurotransmissions
- biological basis for learning and memory in mammals
- occurs in hippocampus
- Hippocampus, Amygdala, Cerebellum

Amnesia

the loss of memories

Retrograde Amnesia

forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma

Anterograde Amnesia

-occurs when the hippocampus is damaged, resulting in the inability to “create” long-term memories and forcing a person to always live in the present

Forgetting Curve

exponential loss of info shortly after learning it
- Ebbinghaus: people forget at a predictable rate

Interference

there are two ways to interfere with the creation of new memories (retro and proactive)

Retroactive Interference

new memories impair retrieval of older memories

Proactive Interference

prior learning inhibits or interferes with the recall of later learning

Flashbulb Memories

vivid and detailed memories that people create during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events

Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesia

inability to remember the source of a memory while retaining its substance

Algorithm

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a problem because it explores every possibility

Cognition

mental activity associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering, and communicating

Concepts

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, people

Convergent Thinking

a question invites only one correct answer
- limits creativity

Creativity

ability to produce novel and valuable ideas within any discipline, including art, music, architecture math, science, and engineering

Critical Thinking

going beyond acquiring new info using concepts, prototypes, and other cognitive activities and develop opinions and beliefs about that info

Divergent Thinking

a question or problem can have several or many possible responses

Heuristics

”rules of thumb”
- allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently, but the shortcuts involved may lead to incorrect outcomes

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem, such as suddenly seeing a cause and effect relationship

Metacognition

active control and awareness of our own thinking
- when we think about our thinking

Prototype

mental image of the best example of a specific concept or category

Anchoring Effect

a cognitive bias favoring the first info offered

Availability Heuristic

estimates the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
- problematic heuristic

Belief Perseverance

the thinking flaw of clinging to our initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Confirmation Bias

tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Functional Fixedness

a tendency to only think of an object's most common use

Mental Set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct and to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Representativeness Heuristic

we judge how something represents, or matches, certain prototypes we have

Language Acquisition Device

all people have an inborn capacity to learn the language with which they are raised. Healthy children can learn whatever language
- Chomsky

Linguistic Determinism

language one uses determines the way one thinks and one’s view of the world
- Whorf

Linguistic Relativity

hypothesis that assumes that language and though have INFLUENCES on each other= language one speaks influences how one thinks, and vice versa
- language does not determine thought

Morpheme

smallest unit that carries some meaning

Phoneme

smallest distinctive sound unit in a language

Semantics

the study of meaning in language

Syntax

determines the rules for combining or arranging words into grammatically sensible sentences

Telegraphic Speech

two word stage of language development; child uses mostly noun and verbs

Achievement Tests

identify what individuals know and test their skill levels in different areas

Aptitude Tests

measure ability in certain areas, such as numerical, verbal, or mechanical reasoning
- strength in areas can indicate one’s potential professional direction

Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale

provided children with a mental age, allowing the assessor to identify if children were ahead of or behind their peers
- Alfred Binet and T Simon

Crystallized Intelligence

represents ones accumulated knowledge.
- increases with age as one’s accumulated knowledge and experiences expand

Factor Analysis

analyzes correlations between different measures

Fluid Intelligence

demonstrated by recognizing patterns, seeing relationships, and using logic to solve novel problems without a connection to past knowledge
- decreases with age

Heritability

genetic basis

Intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Intelligence Quotient

mental age (given by exam) divided by the chronological age (actual age of child) multiplied by 100
- shows if children were ahead or behind peers
- William Stern

Mental Age

Primary Mental Abilities

Psychometric Psychologists

focus on measuring and assessing a number of traits; skilled mathematicians

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

test intelligence of in a wider population, American audience of varied ages and a broader range of subjects
- Lewis Terman

Wechsler Intelligence Scale

(adult and children) - a performance scale that measured perceptual organization and processing speed. Abstract tasks such as block design, pic completion, etc

* administered for special ed class
* David Wechsler
* verbal

Norm Referenced Tests

one that allows you to be compared to this sample group of test takers and determine your relative position in the testing group

Standardization

procedures by which the exam is created, administered, and scored
- factor regarding timing, directions, settings, seating, and monitoring should be the same for all test takers

Stereotype Threat

when groups is told beforehand that they generally perform worse, they will. If not, they will perform better

Reliability

a measure of consistency in test results

Split-half Reliability

degree to which two halves of an exam have equal difficulty
- high = taking odd numbers and even numbers separately. If scores from both halves of the test are comparable the exam has internal consistency as well

Test-Retest Reliability

the degree to which an assessment yields similar individual results each time it is taken
- high reliability = people took ACT multiple times only to receive the same scores each time or improve by a single point

Validity

the degree to which assessments succeed in measuring what they are designed to measure

Concurrent Validity

a measure of how well a particular test correlates with a previously validated measure

Construct Validity

personality, intelligence, and other hypothetical concepts
- requires an assessment to be based on the entire range of theoretical concepts that underlie the subject

Content Validity

when a test measure the content or subject of what it was designed to measure

Predictive Validity

if an assessment accurately forecasts performance on a future measure

Down Syndrome

disorder characterized by an extra chromosome 21. Round, flat face, slanted eyes, brain and weight is below average, muscle movements are clumsy and slow

Emotional Intelligence

the ability to assess and control the emotions of oneself and others

Flynn Effect

people are getting “smarter” or at least getting better at standardized tests
- increased crystallized and fluid intelligence in generations

Gifted

those that score 2 or more standard deviations above the mean