AP Bio ch 5 mm test

what are the macromolecules?

• Carbohydrates, Lipids,Proteins, Nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

• Can be mono, di, or polysaccharides

• They are used for energy, cellular or molecular structure

• Glucose C6H12O6 is the most common

• They are classified by location of carbonyl group

  • Aldose or ketose

• Number of carbons in the carbon skeleton

• Ring structure

  • Helix, globical, nucleic acids 

• You can tell them apart bc they have diff structures - structural isomers

• Ex: glycogen, each one is a glucose molecule - cell respiration to produce cellular gasoline (ATP)

  • Fuels your function

  • are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically in a ratio of 1:2:1. They serve as a primary energy source and play key roles in structural functions within cells.

Lipids

• Do not form polymers 

• They are hydrophobic 

  • Consist mostly of hydrocarbons, form nonpolar covalent bonds 

• Important lipids: fats, phospholipids, steroids 

• Cell membrane 

Proteins

• Structural support ex: keratin

• Storage

• Transport -> hemoglobin, oxygen

• Cellular communications -> receptors 

• Movement -> muscles

• Defense against foreign substances -> antibodies & immune response

• Used in moment -> energy

• Greatest functional diversity

• Most function in our bodies in a day

• DNA-> RNA-> protein-> traits

  • Central dogma biology

• Functional ____ consists of one or more polypeptides twisted, folded, or coiled into a unique shape

• Sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s 3d structure 

protein structure

• Ribbon like - more delicate

• Globular - dense, thicker, don’t want to be like ribbon

protein

• keratin

Nucleic acids 

• Store + transmit hereditary info

• Ex: DNA & RNA

• DNA:

  • Determines amino acid sequence

  • Directions for its own replication

• Central dogma bio: DNA-> RNA-> protein synthesis (occurs in ribosome)

Condensation rxn

• two monomers bond together to form a polymer and a water molecule is lost

  • Enzymes (proteins) are required to speed up the reaction, aka catalysts 

hydrolysis

• polymers are broken down to monomers 

  • Take monomers to build up, polymers break down

monosaccharides

• Single sugar monomers 

• Molecular formula ratio 1:2:1

  • Glucose is most common

  • Classified by carbonyl group

    • Aldose or ketose - ose is sugar

  • # carbons in carbon skeleton

    • 3 to 7

  • Sugars form rings - aqueous solutions 

    • Helix, globical, nucleic acids - long branching chains 

  • Glucose, fructose, galactose, have C6H12O6

    • Have diff structures that allow you to tell them apart - structural isomers

Disaccharides

• Double sugars (ex: sucrose)

• Condensation reactions to build up

• 1 to 4 glycosidic linkage - like a clock so carbon 1 joins to C#4

Polysaccharides

• Multiple sugars link together to form a polymer

• Used for energy role, cellular or molecular structure 

• Polymer sugars

• Storage + structural roles

• Function based on:

  • Sugar monomers and position glycosidic linkages

Polysaccharides ex: storage

starch, glycogen

storage Polysaccharide starch

• Found in plant (ex: potato)

  • Photosynthesis -> survives by using starch for cell respiration

  • Glucose monomers 

  • Extra starch stored - granules in chloroplasts

storage Polysaccharide Glycogen

• Animal

• Glucose monomers

• Stored in liver & muscle cells

Polysaccharide Ex: structural

cellulose

monosacchardie ex

glucose

disaccharide ex

sucrose

structural polysaccharide Cellulose

• Plants (important component of cell wall)

• Polymer glucose

• Glycosidic linkages 

  • Diff from scratch, based 2 ring forms for glucose (alpha + beta)

• Most common

• Helps maintain a boxy and rigid shape

  • If not there, shape difficult to maintain, wall compromised, tissue compromised, etc, etc -> death

• Structure determines function 

Polymers with alpha glucose (spiral staircase)

helical

Polymers w beta glucose

straight

• H atoms -> one strand can bond w OH groups on other strands 

• Parallel cellulose molecules are grouped into micro fibrils, which form strong building materials for plants 

chitin (polysaccharide)

• Exoskeleton of arthropods 

• Provides structural support for cell walls of fungi

• Structural polysaccharides found in cells of fungi, arthropods

• Ex: crab

• Anti fungal capabilities 

Glycosidic linkage

• A covalent bond that joins two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction

Fats

• Made from glycerol + fatty acids

  • Glycerol is a 3 carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon

  • Fatty acids is carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton 

  • In a fat, 3 fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an ester linkage -> triacylglycerol or triglyceride

  • Fatty acids vary in length (# of carbons) & # and locations of double bonds

Saturated fatty acids

• have a max # of H atoms possible (no double bonds), don’t solidify 

Unsaturated fatty acids

•  have one or more double bonds 

  • Fish oil breaks this

Saturated fats

• solid at room temp., animals fats, can cause cardiovascular disease/ plaque deposits 

Unsaturated fats

• Oils (liquid at room temp), usually plant & fish fats, “healthier” 

  • Considered healthier but actually not as healthy 

Hydrogenation

• Converting unsaturated fats to saturated fat by adding hydrogen

• Creates unsaturated fats with trans double bonds (may contribute more to cardiovascular disease)

example of Hydrogenation

margarine

• Worse than normal butter

Function of adipose tissue

• energy storage

• Humans and other mammals store their fat in adipose cells

• Adipose tissues also cushions vital organs + insulates body 

• Same amt even if gain or loose weight 

 phospholipid bilayer

• 2 fatty acids (hydrophobic tails) + phosphate group attached to glycerol (hydrophilic heads )

• Structure results in biliary arrangement found in cell membranes 

• Appearance is like hairpins/ bobbypins

• Ex: bricks on a wall

  • Main structure, support, chains around them that allow movement 

Cell membrane and phospholipid bilayer

Structure results in biliary arrangement found in cell membranes 

Cholesterol example

steroids

steroids - cholesterol

• C skeleton consists of 4 fused rings

• Cholesterol component in animal cell membranes

• Very important to human body - precursor to hormones 

• Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in blood can contribute to cardiovascular diseases 

• Every cell has this, if there was none: cells would be so packed together nothing would get through

• Zero = not functioning

• Really high amt can block artery 

Proteins have the greatest…?

Functional diversity

Enzymes and their general functions

• Proteins

• Act as catalysts to speed up chemical rxns

• Reusable, glucose & fructose break down into energy 

• Active site

• Specific enzyme acts on a specific substrate 

• All enzymes catalysts, not all catalysts enzymes 

• Ends in -ase = enzyme

• Induced fit hypothesis

  • Ex: baseball glove - wraps around it 

polypeptide chains

• Protein structure

• Polypeptides - polymers, built from amino acids (20)

  • Can have 4, 5000, etc monomers

  • Order determines what protein you end up with when it's all done

  • Peptide bonds

  • Unique linear sequence

  • Protein consists of one or more polypeptide

Amino acids

• Carb vs protein vs acid vs lipid

  • R groups for protein

  • 20 diff R groups, each responds to diff

  • Monomer

  • Organic molecules w carboxyl & amino groups

  • Differ in properties bc diff side chains, R groups 

Primary protein structure

• Unique sequence amino acids (order letters in long word)

• Determined by inherited genetic info

secondary protein structure

• In most proteins

• Starts to coil - alpha helices

• Folds - beta pleated sheets

• Result from H-bonds

• Diff shapes - > more functional than before 

tertiary protein structure

• Protein becomes 3d

• Functional - all stages

• Peak function

• Useful in bodies

• Coiling intensifies, folds, bends 

• Determined by R groups on same polypeptide

• Lots H bonds being formed

• Iconic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, van de waals

• Stuff combines and gets held on to

• covalent bonds - strong , disulfide bridges reinforce proteins structure

quaternary protein structure

• Done fully worked on -> does whatever jobs in body

• Multiple tertiary combined, form kind of a superprotein

• Multiple polypeptide chains form one macromolecule

• Collagen - coil like, fiber, anchor cells in place, wrinkles, fibrous proteins 3 polypeptides 

• Hemoglobin - globular protein, 4 polypeptide, 2 alpha, 2 beta chains

• More folded -> more functional 

Secondary protein structure example

orb weaver

• Beta pleated sheets

  • Secondary level onward

  • Allows this structure 

  • Elasticity, flexibility

  • Functional & tough enough to catch insect

Sickle cell

• Effects protein structure 

• Cell diseases 

• Diff blood cell than normal

• Slight change in primary structure affect protein structure and ability to function

• Tropical regions of world 

• Inherited blood disorder, result: single amino acid substitution in protein hemoglobin

• Pre medicine: 30-40yr olds died from it 

• Counter to malaria 

  • Be sick, allows sickle cell to survive malaria but will die at abt 30-40yrs of age 

• One single shape change 

• Impacts shape and function, impacts primary to functionality 

Denaturing proteins

• Alterations pH, salt concentration, temp., other environmental factors

• Cause a protein to unravel + become inactive 

• Ex: egg goes from goopy white to solid white, neutering proteins 

• Ex: ceviche -> raw fish w veggies  w lemon or lime (acid component)

  • Lower pH can denature proteins

  • “Cook” raw fish 

• Ex: tangled ribbon, or folded up -> not tangled or folded up -> renaturation refolds & rectangles 

• Ex: fevers, viruses, bacteria, pathogens -> exponential growth -> body heats up to break down pathogen

Chaperonin

• Protein folding 

  • Protein molecules that assist folding process

  • Ex: washing machine 

  • How we fold proteins

DNA

• DNA molecule has 2 strands that spiral like a staircase, shape double helix

• Like the road

• 2 stands run in opposite 5_ -> 3_ directions (look at slide 46 for prime symbols)

  • Antiparallel

• 2 strands held together by h-bonds - weak bonds want weak bond for replication (like zipper for RNA) ( if had covalent bonds it means more energy, and less time for the larger organism, more food consumption)

  • A-> T

  • C->G

RNA

• xT

• A-> U

DNA vs RNA

formation of new DNA

Nucleotides

• Polymer

  • Polynucleotide

  • Nucleic acids 

• Monomer

  • Nucleotide (phosphate, pentose sugar (5 side) & nitrogenous base)

    • Ex: blue sphere, pentagon, the T (nitrogenous base)

      • One of 4 ways: uracil (RNA only) (A,T,G,C)

  • Sugar and phosphate - backbone  (alternating sugars and phosphate)

  • Bases are the steps (nitrogenous base)

  • Hydrogen bonds are the lines 

  • Purines & pyrimidines 

    • 2 ring, 1 ring structure

General structure of a nucleic acid

• Long polymer chains built from repeating units called nucleotides

Pyrimidine

• Cytosine, thymine, uracil

• Single six-membered ring

purine

• Adenine, guanine

• Have six-membered ring fused to a five-membering ring 

Pyrimidine vs purine

2 types nitrogenous bases

What carbohydrate is this?

glucose

What carbohydrate is this?

fructose

What carbohydrate is this?

galactose

What monosaccharide is formed?

sucrose (glucose + fructose)

what disaccharide is formed?

lactose (galactose + glucose)

what polysaccharide is this?

glycogen

ketose

monosaccharide that contains a ketone group (-C=O bonded to two other carbon atoms).

located on secondary carbon atom

ex: ribulose, fructose, and dihydroxyacetone

aldose

monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde group (-CHO).

located at end of carbon chain

ex: ribose, glucose, galactose, glyceraldehyde

triose, pentose, hexose in monosaccharides

• # of carbons

triose for aldose(C3H6O3)

glyceraldehyde

triose for ketose(C3H6O3)

dihydroxyacetone

pentose for aldose (C5H10O5)

ribose

pentose for ketose(C5H10O5)

reibulose

hexose for aldose(C6H12O6)

glucose + galactose

hexose for ketose (C6H12O6)

fructose

If the molecular formula of glucose, fructose,

and galactose is C6H12O6, what are these molecules

called? How do we tell them apart?

they are structural isomers

what is this a model of?

Hydrogenation

enzymatic proteins

function: selective acceleration of chemical rxns

ex: digestive enzymes

structural proteins

function: support

ex: silk fibers; collagen and elastin in animal connective tissues; kerative in hair, horns, feathers, and other skin appendages

storage proteins

storage of Amino acids

ovalbumin in egg white; casein, the protein of milk; storage proteins in seeds

transport proteins

transport of other substances

hemoglobin, transport proteins

hormonal proteins

coordination of organism’s actives

insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas

receptor proteins

response of cell to chemical stimuli

receptors in nerve cell membranes

contractile and motor proteins

movement

acting and myosin in muscles, proteins cilia and flagella

defensive proteins

protection against disease

antibodies combat bacteria and viruses