UNIT 2 AP Psychology

Bottom-up processing

relies on external sensory information.

Top-down processing

is influenced by our internal prior expectations.

Schemas

mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information.

Perceptual sets

expectations that influence how we perceive the world.

Gestalt psychology

offers principles that explain how we organize our perceptions

Closure

We tend to see incomplete figures as complete.

Figure and ground

We differentiate objects from their background.

Proximity

Objects that are close together are seen as a group.

Similarity

Similar objects are perceived as a group.

Selective attention

We often focus on specific information while ignoring others

The cocktail party effect

(example of selective attention) even in a noisy room, we can still hear our name mentioned

Inattention

Sometimes, we miss aspects of our environment because we are not paying attention.

change blindness

where we fail to notice changes in a scene because we are distracted.

binocular depth cues

Our depth perception relies on visual information from both eyes

Retinal disparity

The slight difference between the images projected onto each retina helps us perceive depth

Relative clarity

Objects that are closer appear clearer than those farther away

Relative size

Larger objects are perceived as closer than smaller ones, even if they are the same size.

Texture gradient

Surfaces with a detailed texture appear closer, while smoother textures seem farther away

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, like railroad tracks meeting at the horizon

Interposition

When one object overlaps another, the overlapping object is perceived as closer

Convergence

The brain merges the images from both eyes to create a single, three-dimensional perception

Monocular depth cues

allow us to perceive depth even with one eye

Size constancy

We perceive an object as having a constant size, even when its distance from us changes.

Shape constancy

We perceive an object as having a constant shape, even when its angle of view changes.

Color constancy

We perceive familiar objects as having consistent color, even under varying lighting conditions.

Concepts

the building blocks of thought, helping us to categorize and understand the world

Prototypes

The most typical example of a concept.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them.

Accommodation

Changing schemas to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution by trying all possible options

Heuristics

mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making but can lead to errors

Representativeness heuristic

Making judgments based on how well something matches a prototype

Availability heuristic

Basing judgments on the most readily available information

Mental set

Approaching problems in a way that has worked before.

Priming and framing

Decisions can be swayed by how information is presented

Gambler's fallacy

Believing that past events affect the likelihood of future events

Sunk-cost fallacy

Continuing a behavior due to previously invested resources

Executive functions

cognitive processes that allow us to plan, organize, and carry out goal-directed behaviors

Creativity

the ability to generate novel ideas and engage in divergent thinking

Divergent thinking

exploring many possible solutions to a problem or situation

functional fixedness

a barrier to creativity where one struggles to see new uses for an object

Explicit Memory

Easily described or explained

Implicit Memory

Challenging to describe or explain

Episodic Memory

(type of explicit memory) Memories of personal experiences and events

Semantic Memory

(type of explicit memory) General knowledge and facts

Procedural Memory

(type of implicit memory) Memory for procedures and skills

Prospective Memory

(type of implicit memory) Remembering to perform future actions.

Long-Term Potentiation

a biological process where synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation or intensity

The working memory model

describes how we process information for short-term use and transfer it to long-term memory

The central executive

acts as the control center of the working memory system. It directs attention and manages cognitive processes like problem-solving and decision-making

The phonological loop

specializes in processing verbal and auditory information.

The visuospatial sketchpad

handles visual and spatial information.

The multi-store model

proposes that memory consists of three systems that interact with each other

Sensory Memory

Briefly holds sensory information

Short-Term Memory

Holds information temporarily for processing

Long-Term Memory

Stores information for extended periods

Automatic Processing

Information is encoded without conscious effort

Effortful Processing

Requires attention and conscious effort.

The levels of processing model

suggests that memory is encoded at three levels, from shallow to deep

Structural Encoding

Focuses on the physical structure of information

Phonemic Encoding

Focuses on how information sounds

Semantic Encoding

Focuses on the meaning of the information

Encoding

the processes and strategies used to get information into memory

Mnemonic devices

techniques that help with encoding information into working and long-term memory

Method of loci (mnemonic device)

Associating information with specific locations

Chunking

Breaking information into smaller, manageable units

Categories and hierarchies

Organizing information into categories or a structured hierarchy

The spacing effect

encoding and memory consolidation are more effective when information is spread out over time rather than crammed all at once

The serial position effect

shows that the order in which information is presented affects encoding

Primacy effect

Information presented at the beginning of a list is more likely to be remembered

Recency effect

Information presented at the end of a list is also more likely to be remembered

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge to promote long-term retention

highly superior autobiographical memory

allowing them to recall personal experiences with remarkable detail

Amnesia

Memory loss due to brain injury or disease

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of pre-existing memories

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Recall

Remembering information without cues.

Recognition

Identifying information using retrieval cues.

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive disease that destroys memory and other mental functions

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall memories from early childhood

Context-Dependent Memory

Retrieval is more effective when in the same environment where the information was encoded

Mood-Congruent Memory

Retrieval is enhanced when in the same mood as when the information was encoded

State-Dependent Memory

Retrieval is more effective when in the same physical state as during encoding

Testing Effect

Frequent testing of learned material improves long-term retention

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes can improve memory

The forgetting curve

illustrates how time impacts memory retention

Encoding Failure

Information never properly encoded into long-term memory

Proactive Interference

Old information hinders the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

New information makes it hard to recall old information

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Knowing that you know something but being unable to recall it at the moment

Psychodynamic psychology

is a branch of psychology rooted in the ideas of Sigmund Freud who believed in the impact of an unconscious mind and its motives on our behavior

Repression

According to psychodynamic theorists, some memories are forgotten to protect the ego from distress

Misinformation Effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesia

Inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information was acquired.

Constructive Memory

creating partly false memories through normative memory consolidation practices enhanced by imagination inflation

Memory Consolidation

The process by which memories become stable in the brain

Imagination Inflation

Enhanced memory for imagined events, which can lead to false memories

Standardization

Consistent procedures and environments ensure fairness in test administration

Validity

A test must measure what it is designed to measure