Week 1 - Social Identity

Define social psychology

The scientific attempt to explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings.

• can be observed and measured

• how thoughts and feelings interact and affect behaviour

What is social facilitation?

The impact of others positively impacting performance.

What did Triplett’s cycling study find?

Cyclists rode faster when in a group compared to alone.

→ links to social facilitation

What are reasons why cyclists perform better in groups according to Triplett's study?

• Front rider provided suction that pulled the cyclist along, helping to conserve energy

•Front rider provided shelter from the wind

•Solo cyclists worry that they are not going fast enough, and this exhausts their brain and muscles which inhibits performance

•Friends usually rode as pacers - helped to keep the cyclist's spirits up

•Cyclist is hypnotised by the wheels in front and rides automatically which leaves more energy for a final burst

•The presence of another arouses a 'competitive instinct' that releases 'nervous energy'

Explain Triplett's study with children and fishing reels

Arranged 40 children to play game: turning small fishing reel asap

Task: fishing reels turned a silk band around a drum which was connected to a pulley by a chord - a flag had to travel around the pulley 4 times.

Conditions = Children were alone or in pairs. In pairs, it was a competition.

Results: Very mixed

-> Found that those who played the game in pairs turned the reel faster than those alone:

Faster children experienced competitive arousal - therefore faster movement

Slower children overstimulated

Name some early social psychologists and what they did for social psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt (1879) – the first dedicated laboratory for experimental psychological research – Introspection 

• Sigmund Freud – the psychoanalytic school of psychology: psychodynamic self 

• Adorno suggested the authoritarian personality: influenced one’s idea of self (psychodynamic theory) 

• Early 1900s - Rapid growth of laboratory research in the USA.  

• Allport (1924) social psychology would only flourish if it became an experimental science. 

• Murphy and Murphy (1931-1937) published a book called Experimental Social Psychology. 

What historical forces changed the notion of self in the 16th century? Give definitions

Secularisation: idea that fulfilment is achieved in afterlife was replaced by the idea that fulfilment should be achieved in this life

Industrialisation: people seen as products of production - portable self-identity, not locked into statis social structures

Enlightenment - period when people believed they could create better lives and identities by challenging traditional values and overthrowing oppressive systems - American and French Revolutions.

Psychoanalysis: Freud believed that we can't fully understand ourselves because our true thoughts and feelings are hidden deep in the unconscious mind.

What is a criticism of social psychology?

It is critiqued for being too positivistic and reductionist, dehumanising people and ignoring individual differences.

Name some post-positivism developments and alternatives in regards to social psychology

• Social constructivism 

• Humanistic psychology 

• Discourse analysis

• Adopting other/new ways of the scientific process -> operational definitions – so it can be measured 

• Ethical considerations of pps – not objects of experiments 

What is social constructivism?

Theory that many aspects of perceived reality and knowledge are created through social interactions and shared beliefs rather than being inherent or natural

What is discourse analysis?

The study of language in use, examining how people use talk and text within social contexts to perform actions and construct meaning

Name some research methods used within social psychology

• Lab experiments

• Field experiments

• Archival research

• Case studies

• Surveys

• Qualitative research, e.g. interviews, focus groups

• Discourse analysis

• Conversational analysis

• Field study

What are some non-experimental research methods in social psychology?

Archival research, case studies, surveys, and qualitative research.

What is archival research?

Researcher assembles data from a range of sources related to a specific phenomenon

What is self-assessment in the context of self-concept?

Seeking new information about ourselves to find out who we really are.

What is self-verification in the context of self-concept?

Seeking information that confirms what we think we already know about ourselves.

What is self-enhancement in the context of self-concept?

Motivation to promote a favourable image of self.

What is symbolic interactionism?

Self develops through social interaction by using symbols like language and gestures, which usually have shared meanings and represent ideas, not just objects.

What are the 2 types of self-awareness, according to Scheier, 1981?

Private self: private thoughts, feelings and attitudes 

Leads you to match your behaviour to personal internalised standards 

Public self: how other people see you, public image 

Presenting yourself to others in a positive light 

What is the 'looking-glass self' according to William James?

The idea that people see themselves the way they think others see them.

What did Shrauger and Schoeneman (1962) find in their review? *

Shrauger and Schoeneman (1979) reviewed 62 studies to see if this was true. What they found was that people did not tend to see themselves as others saw them, but instead saw themselves as they thought others saw them. (looking glass self)

Describe Dianne Tice's (1992) study on self-perception *

Participants: Undergraduate students.

Task: Describe themselves as either emotionally stable or emotionally responsive via intercom.

Conditions:

Private: Believed no one was watching.

Public: Believed they were being observed by a psychology trainee (no one actually was).

Follow-up: Rated their own emotional responsiveness on a 25-point scale.

Findings: Greater change in self-ratings occurred in the public condition - Students based their self-view on how they thought others saw them.

Conclusion: Supports the "looking-glass self" — the idea that self-concept is shaped by imagined perceptions of others.

What did Doice (1986) suggest about the levels of explanation on psychological research?

Psychologists need to construct theories that formally integrate concepts from different levels 

What does the term 'deindividualisation' refer to?

A reduction in self-awareness that can lead to a loss of individuality in group settings.

What is self-knowledge and self-schema?

SK - A mental representation of oneself, often structured as a self-schema.

SS - A cognitive structure in the brain that organizes information about oneself.

What did Van Gyn et al (1990) study about imagery and performance?

They found that power training and imagery both improved performance.

Pps assigned to one of 4 conditions:

1.Power training on a bike + imagery

2.Power training on a bike without imagery

3.No power training + imagery

4.No power training without imagery

→ Imagery improves self-conception which improved performance –mental rehearsal

What are the three types of self-schema according to Self-Discrepancy Theory? What do they mean?

• Actual self- how the individual perceives themselves to be in terms of status 

• Ought self – how the individual believes they should be (due to social norms and obligations) 

• Ideal self – the type of person you want to become 

What emotional responses can arise from discrepancies between self-schemas?

Feelings of vulnerability, anxiety, and fear.

Discrepancy between one’s actual self and ideal self can lead to dejection

Discrepancy between one’s actual and ought self can lead to agitation

What is regulatory focus theory?

A theory suggesting that promotion focus aims for growth, while prevention focus aims to avoid risks.

• People who are promotion-focussed are more likely to recall information relating to the pursuit of success by others

What did Higgins et al’s (1986) study find?

• Pps were asked for their own and their parents’ expectations of them

• Focusing on the ideal self increased dejection, while focusing on the ought self increased agitation

What is Social Comparison Theory?

Give a study to support this theory

The process of comparing our behaviours and opinions with others to determine socially approved ways of thinking.

→ Medvec et al (1995) - Olympic medallists 

• Looked at medallists of 1992 Olympic Games 

• Found significant difference between silver and bronze medallists in terms of happiness on their faces: silver less happy 

-> Silver better than bronze, but compared themselves more to gold medallists 

What is the 'spyglass self' concept?

The idea that people learn about themselves by observing similar, close others.

• Can help people to adopt traits from people they want to be like

What is the self-evaluation maintenance model?

A mechanism to cope with negative feelings from upward social comparisons by downplaying similarity or distancing oneself from that person.

What is the self-perception theory?

The idea that we gain knowledge of ourselves through self-attributions based on our behaviour.

→ e.g. we infer our own attitudes from our own behaviour

What is the over-justification effect?

In the absence of obvious external determinants of our behaviour, we assume that we freely choose the behaviour because we enjoy it. 

What is the self-affirmation theory?

Theory that people reduce the impact of threat to their self-concept by focussing on and affirming their competence in some other area

What are the 3 classes of motive?

Self-assessment: Seeking accurate and valid information about ourselves.

• People reflect more on less important traits to learn new things about themselves.

Self-verification: Seeking information that confirms our existing self-image.

• People reflect more on important traits to confirm what they already believe about themselves.

Self-enhancement: Seeking information that makes us feel good or look better.

• People focus more on positive traits to feel good about themselves

What did Steele (1975) demonstrate about self-perception?

That negative priming can influence behaviour, as shown by Mormon women's responses to phone calls.

• 95% of those who were told that they are uncooperative within the community were more likely to be more cooperative on the phone call

• 65% of those who were told that they are cooperative did

How does self-esteem relate to social identity?

Self-esteem is influenced by social identity and can provide a confidence boost.

What factors can impact self-esteem?

Failures, stressors, inconsistencies, and stigma.

What did Kenneth and Mamie Clark's study reveal about racial identity?

It showed that Black children preferred white dolls, indicating internalised racism and lower self-esteem.

What can low self-esteem be avoided by?

Escape

Denial

Downplay threat: Taylor (1983) breast cancer patients

Self-expression

Attack threat: setting up excuses before failure (self-handicapping)

Fear of death: people pursue high self-esteem

→ Greenberg et al : Pps felt more anxious after watching a death-related video if their self-esteem hadn't been boosted beforehand.

What is the social identity theory?

A theory that describes group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorisation.

What is the difference between social identity and personal identity?

Social identity is defined by group memberships, while personal identity is defined by unique personal attributes.

What is strategic self-presentation?

A deliberate effort to act in ways that create a particular impression, usually favourable, of ourselves. 
(Jones and Pittman)

What are the 5 strategies of self-presentation?

Self-promotion, ingratiation, intimidation, exemplification, and supplication.

Define the 5 strategies of strategic self-presentation

Self-promotion - convincing others you are competent.

Ingratiation - trying to get others to like you.

Intimidation - making others see you as dangerous.

Exemplification - presenting yourself as morally respectable.

Supplication - appearing helpless to gain sympathy or pity.

(Some Individuals Individually Eat Salt)

What is expressive self-presentation?

Demonstrating and validating our self-concept through our actions - the focus is more on oneself than on others

How do cultural differences affect self-concept?

Western cultures tend to be more individualistic, while many Asian cultures are more collectivist and interdependent.