Sociology - Socialization and Social Control

Status

The position a person occupies in a particular setting

Role

The set of norms, values, behaviors, and personality characteristics attached to a status.

Ascribed Status

A status determined at birth, such as ethnicity, family background, or gender.

Achieved Status

A status acquired through individual effort, skill, or knowledge

Multiple Statuses

The concept that individuals can occupy multiple statuses at the same time

Role Expectancy

The behavior expected from an individual occupying a specific status

Role Playing

The practice of enacting a role, often beginning in childhood through pretend play

Social Role vs Dramatic Role

Social roles can be changeable and complex, while dramatic roles are fixed and unchangeable

Role Variation

Minor differences in behavior from normative standards that are often accepted by society

Role Taking

The process of understanding and fulfilling a role based on the expectations of others

Socialization

The process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropiate to individuals as members of a particular culture.

Agents of Socialization

The individuals, groups, and institutions that create the social context in which socialization takes place, such as family, peer groups, school, and mass media

Anticipatory Socialization

A process of socialization in which a person prepares to be something else for future positions, occupations, and social relationships

Looking-Glass Self

A self-image based on how we think others see us, a concept developed by Charles Horton Cooley.

Dramaturgical Approach

A view of social interaction that analyzes social life in terms of the stage play, developed by Erving Goffman

Norms

Rules and expectations by which a society guiides the behavior of its members

Desocialization

The process of giving up old norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors

Role Expectations

Socially determined behaviors expected of a person performing a role

Sociocultural Evolution

The changes that happen as society acquires new technology, studied by Gerhard Lenski

Values

Broad ideas about what is good or desirable shared by people in a society

Self

The part of an individual’s personality that is formed through social experience, according to George Herbert Mead

Social Institutions

The major spheres of social life organized to meet human needs, including family, education, religion, politics, economy, and health

Significant Other

An individual who is significantly influences another person’s life, particularly in self-development

Symbolic Interactionism

A major sociological perspective that views society as the product of everyday interactions between individuals

Cognitive Development

The process of how thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities change and improve over time as children grow

Stages

Distinct periods of mental development that children progress through in a specific order, each with unique characteristics and abilities

Sensori-Motor Stage

The first stage (birth to 2 years) where children learn through their senses and physical movement to understand the world around them

Pre-Operational Stage

The second stage (ages 2-7) where children develop language and symbolic thinking but cannot yet perform logical mental operations

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage (ages 7-11) where children develop logical thinking skills but only about concrete, real objects and situations

Formal Operational Stage

The final stage (age 12+) where teenagers and adults can think abstractly about hypothetical situations and complex concepts

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched directly

Working Memory

The ability to hold and manipulate information in your mind for short periods while completing mental tasks.

Egocentrism

The inability to see situations from another person’s perspective, believing that everyone sees the world exactly as you do

Symbolic Function

The ability to use words, images, and gestures to represent or stand for something else in the real world

Conservation

Understanding that the amount of quantity of something stays the same even when its appearance changes

Inductive Reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific observations or examples

Deductive Reasoning

Using general principles or rules to reach specific logical conclusions about particular situations

Abstract Thinking

The ability to think about concepts, ideas, and situations that are not physically present or concrete

Hypothetical Thinking

The capacity to consider ‘what if’ scenarios and imagine situations that may not actually exist

Identity

A person’s sense of who they are, including their values, beliefs, personality traits, and place in the world

Morality

Understanding of right and wrong, and the principles that guide ethical behavior and decision-making

Compassion

The ability to understand and share the feelings of others, leading to caring and helpful behavior

Imaginary Audience

The adolescent belief that others are constantly watching and judging their appearance and behavior

Peer Group

A primary group composed of individuals of roughly equal age and similar social characteristics

Mass Media

Instruments of communication that reach large audiences with no personal contact between sender and reciever

Total Institution

A setting in which people are isolated from rest of society for a set period of time and are subject to tight contol

Resocialization

The process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones, often in a total institution

Family

The most important agent of socialization, responsible for teaching children values, norms and beliefs

School

An institution where young people to learn academic and social skills and cultural values

Unintended Socialization

Socialization that occurs without deliberate intention, often through observation and imitation

Deliberate Socialization

Intended socialization activities carried out by individuals such as parents or teachers

Cultural Values

The cherished ideas and standards that a society holds, often transmitted through socialization

Social Identities

The perception of oneself and others within major social categories, influenced by social context

Fluid Identities

Identities that can change over time based on various contexts

Self-claimed Identities

Identities that individuals recognize and declare of themselves

Ascribed Identities

Identities that are assigned to individuals by others based on perception

Intersectionality

The interconnected nature of social categories such as race, class, and gender, which can create overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage

Socioeconomic Class

A measure of an individual’s economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation

Sexual Orientation

A person’s pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others

Disability Status

A classification that encompasses physical, cognitive, and emotional disabilities

Gender

A socially and culturally constructed identity based on perceived characteristics, roles, and behaviors associated with being male, female, or non-binary

Race

A socially constructed category that groups people based on physical characteristics, primarily skin color, facial features, and hair texture, with significant implications for identity and social dynamics

Ethnicity

A social identity that categorizes people based on shared cultural practices, languages, and heritage, often influencing group belonging and experiences

Religion

A social identity defined by shared beliefs, practices, and values related to spiritually or faith, influencing cultural norms and community dynamics

Age

A social identity that categorizes individuals based on the number of years they have lived, affecting perspectives, social roles, and relationships within society

Ability

A social identity based on an individual’s physical, mental, or sensory capabilities, affecting access to opportunities and resources

Citizenship/National Origin

A social identity defined by an individuals legal membership in a nation-state, influencing rights, privileges, and sense of belonging

Body size/type

A social identity associated with an individual’s physical dimensions and shape, often influencing perceptions, social interactions, and experiences within society

Tribal affiliation

A social identity tied to an individual’s connection to a particular tribe or ethnic group, impacting cultural practices, community belonging, and social dynamics

Aggregate

A gathering of people in the same place at the same time without lasting patterns of interaction

Social Category

A means of classifying people according to a shared trait or common status, such as students or women

Dyad

The smallest possible group, consisting of two members, where each member has direct control the group’s existence

Triad

A group of three members, in which the group takes on a life of its own and decision-making is often easier than in a dyad

Small Group

A group that is small enough for all members to interact face-to-face

Formal Group

A group with clearly defined structure, goals, and activities

Informal Group

A group without official structure or established rules of conduct

Primary Group

A small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation, such as family

Secondary Group

A group in which interaction is impersonal and temporary, typically organized around specific goals

Reference Group

Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating their own behaviors and attitudes

In-Group

A social group that a person identifies with and considers to be part of their own group

Out-Group

Any group that a person does not belong to or identify with

E-Community

A new type of group formed regular interaction on the Internet

Social Network

The web of relationships formed by the sum total of a person’s interactions with other people

Leaders

Individuals who influence the attitudes and opinions of group members

Instrumental Leaders

Task-oriented leaders who find specific means to help the group reach its goals

Expressive Leaders

Emotion-oriented leaders who help keep up the group together and maintain morale

Social Control

The enforcing of norms through either internal or external means to ensure conformity and maintain social order

Internalization

The process by which a norm becomes a part of an individual’s personality, conditioning them to conform to societal expectations

Sanctions

Rewards or punishments used to enforce conformity to norms

Positive Sanction

An Action that rewards a particular kind of behavior, encouraging conformity

Positive Sanction

An action that rewards a particular kind of behavior, encouraging conformity

Negative Sanction

A punishment or the threat of punishment used to discourage undesired behavior

Formal Sanction

A reward or punishment given by a formal organization or regulatory agency

Informal Sanction

A spontaneous expression of approval or disapproval given by an individual or group

Adaptation

The process of adjusting or changing behaviors, attitudes, or structures in response to new conditions or demands

Cooperation

The process of working together towards a common goal or benefit, often requiring mutual assistance or collaboration among individuals or groups

Competition

The process in which individuals or groups compete for limited resources, often resulting in conflict or the need for strategic interactions

Abnormality

Something that is not usual, expected, or normal

Ascribe

To assign or refer to (as a cause or source); to blame; to attribute

Attribute

To explain why something happened