Respiratory System, Blood

What are the major functions of the respiratory system?

Include pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, internal respiration, and transport of gases.

What is pulmonary ventilation?

The process of moving air in and out of the lungs.

What is external respiration?

The exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood.

What is internal respiration?

The exchange of gases between blood and body tissues.

What is the transport of gases?

The movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.

What are the general functions of the nose?

Filters, warms, and humidifies air.

What are the general functions of the pharynx?

Serves as a passageway for air and food and helps in sound production.

What are the general functions of the larynx?

Protects the airway during swallowing and houses the vocal cords for sound production.

What are the general functions of the trachea?

Provides a clear airway for air to enter and exit the lungs and conducts air to the bronchi.

What are the general functions of the bronchial tree?

Conducts air from the trachea to the lungs and participates in gas exchange.

What are the general functions of the upper respiratory organs?

Filter, warm, humidify the air, and facilitate the sense of smell.

What are the general functions of the lower respiratory organs?

Primarily responsible for conducting air and enabling gas exchange.

What does the bronchial tree consist of?

Consists of bronchi and bronchioles.

What do bronchioles consist of?

Smooth muscle and cuboidal epithelial cells.

What do bronchi consist of?

Cartilage and a mucous membrane lining.

What do main bronchi consist of?

Rigid structure supported by cartilage rings.

What do secondary bronchi consist of?

Cartilage plates and smooth muscle.

Differentiate between conducting zone structures and respiratory zone structures.

Conducting zone structures transport air, while respiratory zone structures are involved in gas exchange.

What are significant features of alveoli?

Large surface area, thin walls for efficient gas exchange, and are surrounded by capillaries.

What are the pleurae?

Double-layered membranes that reduce friction during breathing.

What are the two layers of pleurae?

The parietal pleura and the visceral pleura.

What is pleurisy?

Inflammation of the pleurae, causing chest pain during breathing.

What is rhinitis?

Inflammation of the nasal mucosa, leading to nasal congestion and discharge.

What is laryngitis?

Inflammation of the larynx, often resulting in hoarseness or loss of voice.

What occurs during inhalation?

The diaphragm contracts and the thoracic cavity expands, decreasing pressure and allowing air flow into the lungs.

What occurs during exhalation?

The diaphragm relaxes, the thoracic cavity decreases in size, increasing pressure and forcing air out.

What gas law applies to pulmonary ventilation?

Boyle’s law since it states that pressure and volume of gas are inversely related.

How does a change in increasing volume affect pressure in pulmonary ventilation?

Decreases pressure, allowing air to flow in

What is Dalton’s Law?

States that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas.

What is Henry’s Law?

States that the amount of gas that dissolves in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid.

What influences external respiration?

Influenced by partial pressure gradients, gas solubilities, and the thickness and surface area of membranes.

How is external respiration influenced by partial pressure gradients?

Gases diffuse from areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure, facilitating the exchange between alveoli and blood.

How is external respiration influenced by the thickness of membranes?

A thinner respiratory membrane enhances gas exchange efficiency by reducing the distance that gases must diffuse.

How is external respiration influenced by the surface area of membranes?

A larger surface area of the respiratory membrane allows for more gas exchange between the lungs and blood.

How is external respiration influenced by gas solubilities?

The solubility of gases in blood affects their ability to be transported and exchanged; more soluble gases diffuse more readily.

What influences internal respiration?

Influenced by partial pressure gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and tissues.

How is oxygen transported in the blood?

Transported in the blood bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma.

Where is the partial pressure of oxygen high?

Oxygen is high in the alveoli and arterial blood.

Where is the partial pressure of oxygen low?

Oxygen is low in the tissues and venous blood.

What are the types of hypoxia?

Includes hypoxic hypoxia (low oxygen availability), anemic hypoxia (low hemoglobin), stagnant hypoxia (poor circulation), and histotoxic hypoxia (cells unable to use oxygen).

What is hypoxic hypoxia?

Condition caused by low oxygen availability in the environment or during respiratory illness.

What is anemic hypoxia?

Condition in which there is insufficient hemoglobin to carry adequate oxygen to the tissues.

What do conducting zone structures do?

Transport air to the lungs and help filter, warm, and humidify the air.

What do respiratory zone structures do?

Involved in gas exchange between the air and the blood.

What is the parietal pleura?

Lining the thoracic cavity, providing a protective covering for the chest wall.

What is the visceral pleura?

Inner lining covering the lungs themselves

What does the visceral pleura and parietal pleura do together?

Double layered membranes help reduce friction between lung surfaces and the thoracic cavity during breathing.

How does a change in decreasing volume affect pressure in pulmonary ventilation?

Increases pressure, forcing air out.

Within the alveoli (or part of the aveoli) you will see _____?

respiratory membrane

Within where will you see the respiratory membrane?

Alveoli or part of the aveoli

What gas goes into the alveoli?

Carbon dioxide, because we’re exhaling it

What gas goes into the capillary?

Oxygen, because we’re inhaling it

What does type II alveolar cells secrete?

surfactant and antimicrobial proteins

What is the active process that involves inspiratory muscles?

inspiration

What are the muscles in the inspiratory muscles?

Diaphragm and external intercostals

What state are the muscles in expiration?

Contracted or relaxed

Oxygen diffuses out of the lung into?

The blood

Carbon dioxide diffuses into the lung coming from?

The blood

Carbon dioxide diffuses where?

Into the lung

Oxygen diffuses where?

Out of the lung

What’s occurring in the alveoli and blood capillary?

External respiration

What’s happening in the internal respiration?

gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries

Where does oxygen move from?

Blood to tissues

Where does carbon dioxide move from?

Tissues into blood

What law is internal respiration following?

Laws of diffusion gradients

Where is the oxygen more concentrated in?

The blood

What diffuses out of the blood and into the tissues?

Oxygen

What diffuses into the tissues and out of the blood?

Carbon dioxide

What is less concentrated in the blood?

Carbon dioxide

What tissue is always lower than in the arterial blood?

Tissue PO2

What tissue is always higher than artierial blood?

Tissue PCO2

What moves from blood to tissues?

Oxygen

What moves from tissues to blood?

Carbon dioxide

How many oxygens can a hemoglobin carry?

4

Which is more soluble carbon dioxide or oxygen?

Carbon dioxide

General Functions of Blood

Transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, metabolic wastes; regulating body temperature, pH, and fluid volume; protecting against blood loss and infection.

Define plasma

The liquid portion of blood, making up almost 55% of its volume, primarily composed of water, dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, waste, and plasma proteins.

Formed Elements

Living blood cells and cell fragments, including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

Erythrocytes Function

Dedicated to the transport of respiratory gases, primarily oxygen.

Regulation of Erythrocytes

Controlled hormonally by the kidneys through erythropoietin release when hypoxic, triggering increased production.

Leukocytes General Functions

Protecting the body against disease, aiding in immune responses.

Types of Leukocytes

Includes granular leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranular leukocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes).

Neutrophils

Most abundant WBCs, highly phagocytic, often called 'bacteria slayers'.

Eosinophils

Account for 2-4% of WBCs, involved in combating parasitic infections and promoting inflammation in allergies.

Basophils

Rarest WBCs, contain histamine which acts as a vasodilator and attracts WBCs to inflamed sites.

Lymphocytes

Crucial to immunity; includes T cells (attack virus-infected and tumor cells) and B cells (produce antibodies).

Monocytes

Largest WBCs; differentiate into macrophages and play a crucial role in phagocytosis.

What is platelets function

Form temporary plugs to seal breaks in blood vessels and release clotting chemicals.

Phases of Hemostasis

Three phases: Vascular spasm, Platelet plug formation, Coagulation.

Vascular Spasm Phase

Damage to blood vessels causes smooth muscle contraction and reduced blood flow to minimize loss.

Platelet Plug Formation Phase

Platelets adhere to damaged area, become sticky, and aggregate to form a temporary plug.

Coagulation Phase

Fibrin strands form a mesh that traps blood cells and solidifies the clot.

Agglutinogens

Substances (antigens) on the surface of RBCs that determine blood type and can trigger an immune response.

Agglutinins

Antibodies in plasma that react against agglutinogens not present on the recipient's RBCs.

Blood Types

Classified as Type A, B, AB, and O based on presence or absence of A and B agglutinogens.

Type A Blood

Has A agglutinogen and anti-B agglutinins.

Type B Blood

Has B agglutinogen and anti-A agglutinins.

Type AB Blood

Has both A and B agglutinogens and no agglutinins.

Type O Blood

Has neither A nor B agglutinogens and has both anti-A and anti-B agglutinins.

Rh Factor

Refers to the presence or absence of the D agglutinogen; Rh+ indicates presence, Rh- indicates absence.