Unit 9 - Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology

- a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Fetus

- the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Teratogens

- agents that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
- Ex: Alcohol, stress hormones, cigarettes, drugs, high caffeine intake
- May cause effects such as dangerously low birth weight, birth defects, behavior problems, lower intelligence, and cause the child to seek out alcohol
- Some of these effects are visible in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome(FAS)

Habituation

- decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
- as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Maturation

- biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior
- relatively uninfluenced by experience
- ex: brain development, motor development, and memory
- learning to stand before we learn to walk

Schema

- a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
- concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences
- ex: a toddler's ____ of a dog may be four legged with fur

Assimilate

- interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas/current understanding
- a toddler may call any four legged animals dogs based on their experiences

Accommodate

- adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
- a toddler's schema of a dog is too broad and will _________ after the schema proves untrue

Object Permanence

- the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
- ex: peek-a-boo, children under 6 months will not understand and be surprised

Conservation

- the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
- ex: when a child sees a tall wide glass and a wide skinny glass being filled to the same volume, they are able to identify that the glasses have the same amount of water

Egocentrism

- in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
- ex: 3 y/o Gray makes himself invisible by putting his hands over his eyes, believing that because he can't see people around him, people around him can't see him

Jean Piaget

- believed that children developed their understanding of the world while interacting with it
- identified 4 stages of cognitive development
- sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Lev Vygotsky

-1896-1934
- Field: child development
- Contributions: investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development; play research

Zone of Proximal Development

- In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction
- When a child's environment presents a concept that is not too easy but not too difficult for them

Stranger Anxiety

- the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Harry and Margaret Harlow

- researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food
- also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social deficits

Critical Period

- an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Konrad Lorenz

- 1903-1989
- ethology (animal behavior)
- focused on critical periods in baby birds, a concept he called "imprinting"

Imprinting

- the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
- ex: ducklings will undergo ________ to the first moving object they see, bouncing balls, a box on wheels, a bouncing ball, or an animal of a different species

Mary Ainsworth

- 1913-1999
- field: development
- contributions: compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment
- studies: The Strange Situation-observation of parent/child attachment

Temperament

- a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
- how an individual will react to a given situation
- stays the same within an individual

Self-concept

- all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
- an understanding/assessment of who you are

Diana Baumrind

- 1927-2018
- researcher who developed a model of parenting styles that included authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive

Gender

- the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

Gender Role

- a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

Gender Identity

- an individual's sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two

Social Learning Theory

- the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
- forming our identity in childhood by observing and imitating others' gender-linked behaviors

Transgender

- an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

Adolescence

- the transition period from childhood to adulthood
- extends from puberty to independence

Puberty

- the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Lawrence Kohlberg

- 1927-1987
- moral development and reasoning
- 3 levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
- presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions
- Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?

Social Identity

- the "we" aspect of our self-concept
- the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
- can form due to distinctive traits around an individuals surroundings, such as ethnicity or religion

Emerging Adulthood

- phase of life distinct from adolescence and adulthood

- in some ways an adult, in some ways not

- a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

- 2 trends:

• average marriage age increasing more than 5 years since 1960

• 2/3 men and 3/4 women had, by age 30, finished school, left home, become financially independent, married, and had a child

Erik Erikson

1902-1994

- field: Neo-Freudian, humanistic

- contributions: created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

- stages:

• Trust v. Mistrust (0-2)

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1.5-3)

• Initiative vs. Guilt (4-5)

•Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)

• Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18)

• Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-30)

• Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-65)

• Integrity vs. Despair (65-death)

Primary Sex Characteristics

- the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary Sex Characteristics

- nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Intersex

- a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy
- possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

Sexual Orientation

- an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

Cross-sectional study

- research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal Study

- research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Neurocognitive Disorders

- acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits
- often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse
- in older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia

Alzheimer's Disease

- a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Sensorimotor Stage

- from birth to about 2 years of age
- in Piaget's theory, the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
- infants gather info through their senses(taste, touch, etc.)

Preoperational Stage

- from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age
- in Piaget's theory, the stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
- children exhibit traits such as animism, egocentrism, and cannot understand metaphors

Concrete Operational Stage

- from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age
- in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
- can use simple logic but cannot think abstractly
- can perform simple math
- understand conservation, reversibility, and class inclusion

Formal Operations

- normally beginning about age 11/12
- in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
- can make use of propositional logic
- can understand abstract logic: understand abstract ideas and concepts such as democracy, honor, human rights, comparison, and fairness

Secure Attachment

- a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
- mother/caregiver is consistently warm, sensitive, and responsive to the babies needs
- caregiver is a secure base, and babies will feel safe to explore their environment since they know their guardian will be there for them

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

- an insecure attachment style characterized by a child's intense distress when reunited with a primary caregiver after separation
- mother/caregiver insensitive, slow and inconsistent, sometimes even unresponsive to babies
- child learns that they cannot depend on their caregiver and will be less likely to explore their environment since they fear getting separated
- will cry uncontrollably when parent left or was indifferent

Avoidant Attachment

- characterized by child's unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves
- rejected infant's attempt to establish contact

Permissive

- parents submit to their children's desires
- they make few demands and use little punishment
- parent is uncomfortable with child being unhappy or angry
- can produce children that cannot take responsibility for their actions, immature, dependent, misbehave frequently
- in some cases, child can feel like their parent/s do not love them

Authoritative

- parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits
- express warmth and affection
- listen to the child's point of view
- have high expectations but responsive to child's needs
- open to negotiating and exceptions to the rules
- can produce children that are: socially competent, self-controlled, independent, assertive,

Authoritarian

- parenting style in which parents are demanding and unresponsive toward their children's needs or wishes.
- parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child
- punishments can vary and be unfair
- demanding but do not listen to child's needs
- can produce children who are: obedient, very self-controlled, may have difficulty expressing emotions, may be withdrawn, apprehensive or cautious

Trust vs. Mistrust

- 0-2 years
- Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner
- mistrust when they feel vulnerable and fearful

Autonomy vs. Shame or Doubt

- 1.5 years/18 months to 3 years
- teachers can help by encouraging toddlers to do things for themselves when it is possible and safe
- toddlers feel pride when controlling mind, body, and environment
- assert themselves with "no"
- shame or doubt: feel unworthy and lack self-confidence

Initiative vs. Guilt

- 4-5 years
- Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities
- can start projects on their own and do something without being told
- guilt: feel that they can't do things and make mistakes and silly questions

Industry vs. Inferiority

- 6-12 years
- leave home and go to school
- child should have something that they are good at in school and at home
- inferiority is when a child feels worthless because they can't do anything well at home or at school

Identity vs. Role Confusion

- 12-18 years
- Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves
- value self and ready for adulthood
- role confusion: haven't resolved life's fundamental questions, unable to concentrated on what you need to get done, indecisive about career path and moving out, not ready for adulthood

Intimacy vs. Isolation

- 18-30 years
- Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families
- seek more permanent relationships, withdraw from those that threaten identity
- Isolation: fear rejected and have no committed relationships, cannot take on responsibilities

Generativity vs. Stagnation

- 30-65
- Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service
- concerned with immortality and contributions they have made to the world
- stagnation: live only in the moment and indulge in personal desires

Integrity vs. Despair

- 65-death
-Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives
- Integrity: self-respect, reflect on life and feel satisfaction, no regrets
- Despair: heartache and remorse, focus on missed opportunities, feel like a failure

Preconventional

- level 1 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- ages 0-9
- no sense of right or wrong
- reasoning based on consequences
- primary concern is avoiding punishment

Punishment and Obedience Orientation

- stage 1 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- people in this stage obey rules to avoid punishments
- good or bad is determined by physical consequences

Conventional(Social)

- level 2 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- ages 9-20
- one takes into account society's norms and laws

Postconventional(Conceptual)

- level 3 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- ages 20+ or never
- people at this stage identify their universal morals and values
- what is moral may not be legal and what is legal may not be moral

Personal Reward Orientation

- stage 2 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- personal needs/wants determine right and wrong

Good boy/good girl orientation

- stage 3 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- right and wrong is determined by close others' approval or disapproval

Law and Order Orientation

- stage 4 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- Laws are absolute and authority must be respected
- Maintaining social order and doing one's duty is moral

Social Contract Orientation

- stage 5 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- Good is determined by socially agreed upon standards of individual rights

Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

- stage 6 of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory
- what is "good" and "right" is a matter of individual conscience and involve abstract concepts of justice, human dignity, and equality

Gender Typing

- the process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender

15 months

- at what age can 90% of toddlers walk?