French Revolution and Napoleon 1774 - 1815

Constitutional Monarchy: What reforms were made to Political and Administrative?

- France was divided into 83 departments for elections and local government. These were divided into districts, cantons, and communes, which would be run by an elected council.

- More power was given to locals as a safeguard against a royal recovery of power.

- The right to vote was given to active citizens-all men over 25 who paid a certain level of tax.

- Those ineligible were passive citizens' (3 million)

Constitutional Monarchy: what reforms were made to taxation?

- everyone paid tax

- all liable to pay land tax and commercial profits tax.

- 'active citizens' paid tax on movable goods.

- deputies were now the richest people in society

- They also sold church land they had nationalised, which helped them to get money.

Constitutional Monarchy: what reforms were made on judicial reforms?

- a new uniform system

- "Justice for peace"

- torture and mutilation were abolished.

- justice was free and equal for all

- guillotine is introduced

Constitutional Monarchy: What was the Civil Constitution of Clergy?

- Bishops dioceses were reorganised to coincide with the new 83 departments.

- All other clerical posts apart from parish priests were removed.

- Appointment to any clerical was a by-election. Many clergies opposed this consitution.

- Their call for a church synod was denied so y waited for the judgement of the Pope.

- Other changes in the Church were:

- All Church property became the property of the s state. Abuses such as pluralism were abolished.

- The clergy were to be paid by the state instead of collecting the tithe.

- Monastic orders that provided neither education

charitable work were suppressed.

- Protestants were given full civil rights.

- The clergy accepted this although many were unhappy that Catholicism was not made the official religion of France.

Constitutional Monarchy: what reforms had been made to sharing power?

- when the legislative assembly made a decision the King had to agree to it, or pass a suspensive veto and hold the law for 2 years, the legislative assembly could reconsider it and change it or wait for the 2 years. After 2 years the law would pass anyway.

- The King was allowed to appoint ministers and military commanders, like before.

- The King had to get the legislative assembly to agree to any foreign wars he wanted to get involved in.

- The King was subordinate to the assembly as he had to follow any laws they eventually passed.

- The King seemed to reluctantly accept this.

Constitutional Monarchy: The Oath of Loyalty

- the National Assembly told them to take an oath of loyalty as they were concerned about their constant protesting. A lot of the priesthood refused. Many of those who did take it later retracted their oaths when the Pope told them to.

- The Church split into two, one that was loyal to the new government and took the oath, and one that was loyal to the Pope and refused to take the oath. The Constituent Assembly then threatened to deport priests who wouldn't take the oath.

- Civil rights were given to Jews and Protestants, which also concerned the Catholic Church.

Constitutional Monarchy: Civil Constitution of Clergy and The Oath of Loyalty significance

- This caused friction between the Catholic french people and the state.

- they felt like the state was trying to control the church when that's the pope's job

- this led to a rise in counter-revolution protests and a significant number of people now opposing the revolution.

Constitutional Monarchy: Economic and Social Change

- laissez-faire.

- All internal customs barriers were abolished.

- Under the Loi Le Chapelier, June 1791, the guilds that regulated craft industries and trade unions were banned, and strikes were made illegal. This was for the benefit of independent craftsmen and employers, not the very poor.

- The deputies saw relief for the poor as the duty of the state. However, little was done.

- They examined the extent of the problem - almost 2 million people begging - but lacked the finance to do anything.

- To finance, the government, assignats were introduced, backed by the sale of Church lands. T

+ his land sale provided income, created people with a vested interest in supporting the Revolution and left the clergy dependent upon the state for their salaries and thus more likely to be supporters of the new state.

Constitutional Monarchy: what was essential to establish a constitutional monarchy?

- acceptance from the King - he fled.

- moderate political change accepted by the majority of the population - extreme population, wanted a republic, royalists wanted monarch

- politics not polarised and violent.

Constitutional Monarchy: The Flight to Varennes. (causes)

- he felt like a prisoner in Paris

- he had a weak position even though he was king

- wanted to retake power in France but he cannot do that without a strong army

- They tried to pass laws to stop them from fleeing, but the king vetoed the laws.

- The king was under pressure from Marie-Antoinette to resist the revolution.

- The king felt imprisoned after being taken back to Paris after the October Days and like he had to agree to everything they said.

Constitutional Monarchy: The Flight to Varennes. (method)

1- In June 1791 the royal family left Paris in disguise and travelled east.

2- The King had written a letter denouncing the Revolution

3- the royal servant informed Lafeyette that the Royal Family is missing

4- Lafeyette told the Luxembourg border ( they were sympathetic towards him) in advance that Louis was coming and that they should stop him.

5- a post office worker found him on the way and told the revolutionaries where he is.

6- The revolutionaries stopped the carriage, confirmed that it was the royal family and escorted them back to Paris.

Constitutional Monarchy: The Flight to Varennes. (outcome)

- 30,000 people marched to the National Assembly supporting a petition which called for the King to be dismissed.

- People began to openly criticise the monarch for renouncing part of the revolution (the Civil Constitution of the Clergy) and supported a republic.

- Royal street names were taken down.

- Usually people welcomed a king back into Paris, when the King returned they turned his back on him.

- They even covered the eyes of a statue of his father to show ashamed his father would have been.

- The church carried on refusing to take the oath as they felt that the King would support them.

- Other priests either fled abroad or and he nobility emigrated as they were worried a civil war would come.

- Around 60% of the military officers joined the nobility as they were also worried a civil war would come.

- On 16 July 1791 the assembly suspended the king until the constitution would be completed. Many deputies voted for this motion, many abstained, and some felt it didn't go far enough.

Constitutional Monarchy: The Flight to Varennes. (significance)

+Turning point - this gave the majority confidence in trying to permanently remove the king from power

- the weakness of the king - people were able to criticise him in public without fear.

- no one trusted Louis

- he did not understand how popular changes since 1789 were

- constitutional monarchy is in doubt.

- republicanism is growing.

Constitutional Monarchy: The Political Clubs

- radical : Cordeliers and Jacobins

- moderate : Feuillants

- monarchists : Club Monarchique

Constitutional Monarchy: Champs de Mars

- The Cordeliers organised a signing ceremony for a republican petition on the Champs de Mars.

- approx. 50,000 people attended.

- The National Guard under the Marquis de Lafayette were called out to maintain order and fired on the crowd.

- 50 + people were killed and the rest dispersed.

- In the aftermath the Cordeliers Club leaders, Brissot and Danton, fled and it was shut down.

Constitutional Monarchy: The legislative Assembly

- constitution of 1791 the Legislative Assembly replaced the National Constituent Assembly that had been established on 9 July 1789.

- Elections took place and on 1 October 1791 the 745 new deputies of the Legislative Assembly met for the first time.

- well-off, mostly from the bourgeoisie. Few were nobles, most of whom had emigrated or retired to their country estates. A few deputies were clergy.

Constitutional Monarchy: weaknesses

- It may have seemed that there was little chance of success.

1 Many distrusted the King after Varennes.

2 As no former member of the National Constituent Assembly could be a representative in the new Assembly, the new deputies lacked experience.

2 The new government faced bitter divisions in Paris, a King who obviously did not seem to believe in the constitution and had wanted to leave France, and increasing threats from the opposition at home and abroad.

Constitutional Monarchy: strengths

1 the King did accept the constitution.

2 There were few by October 1791 who supported ending the monarchy.

3 The new Assembly did contain many able men.

4 the Paris crowds had been controlled by the National Guard in July, which showed that order could be maintained.

4 There had been many changes made to France in 1790- 91 which paved the way for a more modern country

Constitutional Monarchy: riots significance

+ major part in the development of the revolution

- the crowded faubourgs were difficult to contain

- political instability consider with high prices and urban distress

- Paris had a large number of people who were literate and so could be influenced by increasingly

radical newspapers and pamphlets.

- The crowds were also moved by the orators who demanded change and spoke against privilege.

- The first major political riots - the dismissal of Necker on 11 July, lead to the storming of the Bastille on 14 July. extreme violence in the murder of the governor of the Bastille. destroyed customs posts, the mob attacked prisons and grain hoarders.

Constitutional Monarchy: Storming of the Bastille (causes)

- The King dismissed the popular finance minister Necker, the people felt this was the King's first step to suppressing the National Assembly by force so they felt they had to arm themselves.

- The current government was incapable of solving their financial problems of unemployment and bread prices. They thought the National Assembly could help.

- When it looked like the king was gathering troops against the National Assembly they would protect it.

- The people also didn't like the royal prison.

Constitutional Monarchy: Storming of the Bastille (method)

1 Sans-Culottes looted muskets from shops but had nothing to fire them with.

2 They knew the Bastille had gunpowder. They got a canon.

3 The Sans-Culottes attacked the Bastille and got inside.

4 They beheaded governor Delaunay.

5 The soldiers supported the people and didn't stop them.

Constitutional Monarchy: Storming of the Bastille (outcome)

- National assembly set about writing the new constitution where they would reduce the King's power.

> The King wouldn't be able to use his army against them as his army weren't loyal enough and as there was now a Citizens Militia.

- The King travelled to Paris and wore the revolutionary cockade in his hat, which showed he knew the Parisians had considerable power.

- Riots happened in towns in support of the National Assembly and mob in Paris.

Constitutional Monarchy: Storming of the Bastille (significance)

- the creation of the Paris Commune - The middle-class Parisians set up their own body of rule because the king might be losing power and they did not want to be under mob rule. Lafayette became leader later on and named it the national guard.

- National Assembly powerful - Towns refused to follow orders unless the National Assembly validated them. Some town councils were overthrown and replaced by the bourgeoisie and some added bourgeoisie members to existing councils.

- Most towns set up their own National Guard to guard against the mob (the Sans-Culottes) and the King.

- increase in riots - they looted grain stores and burnt the nobles' chateaux

Constitutional Monarchy: The Great Fear and August Decrees

Rumours started amongst the peasantry that the nobility were sending brigands to destroy the crops to make things even worse for them, so the peasants continued rioting and looted even more grain stores. They destroyed land and burnt even more chateuxs. The National Assembly passed the August Decrees to try and calm the peasants down. The August Decrees got rid of tithes, venality, tax privileges and privilege by birth. Getting rid of privilege by birth meant feudal dues and being subordinate to landowners also ended. This ended feudalism.

Constitutional Monarchy: Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

The constitutional assembly wrote this as a preamble and idea behind their new constitution. It said that 'all men are born free and equal' and suggested power would be shared, taxation would be fairer and there would be freedom of equality.

Constitutional Monarchy: Nationalisation of Church Land

The constitutional assembly declared that church land now belonged to the nation. This meant the government now owned the land and could collect rent. This would help to solve the deficit, which was now worse as tax collection had entered chaos from the August Decrees. They also spent some of the income on wages for the clergy, which implicitly meant that in the long run the clergy had to do as the constitutional assembly wished to receive their pay. The government could also borrow money much more easily, as they could guarantee it with the land. Some royal land was sold to get money. Later the government sold some of the Church land too.

Constitutional Monarchy: The October Days ( Causes )

in October the King vetoed the August Decrees and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The King also built up new loyal forces from the Flanders (today this is in Belgium, back then it was in France) at the Palace of Versailles. During their welcoming feast the officers from the Flanders Regiment trampled the revolutionary cockade and replaced it with the white cockade of the Bourbons. There was a food shortage in Paris

Constitutional Monarchy: The October Days (Events)

1 A crowd of women stormed the headquarters of the Paris Commune, where the leaders of the Commune persuaded them to march to Versailles, 20km away.

2 6000-7000 women left and were followed by 20,000 National Guardsmen led by Lafayette.

3 The women invaded the National Assembly at Versailles and sent they demands to the King.

4 They wanted him to agree to the August Decrees, the Declaration and send grain to Paris.

Constitutional Monarchy: The October Days ( Consequences )

1 The King was worried about their violence so he agreed to approve the August Decrees, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and to send grain to Paris.

2 He also agreed that he should follow French law. They demanded that the King and the National Assembly come to Paris so that they had to do more of what they said.

3 They agreed as they were scared of their violence.

4 In Paris the King and the National Assembly felt like they had been taken prisoner by the mob and that he wouldn't be bound to anything he agreed.

Constitutional Monarchy: The Jacobins

- originated in Brittany, October 1789 in the disused convent of St Jacques - they called themselves the Society of the Friends of the Constitution.

- Patriotic societies were formed in most French cities in affiliation with the Parisian club.

+ The middle-class members; aimed to limit the power of the King, some were more radical and wanted a republic and the club split in 1791.

- They were divided about the war against Austria in 1792.

+ As the Revolution was threatened they became more radical, allied with the sans-culottes and demanded an end to the monarchy, more rights for ordinary people and reforms in education.

- Under Robespierre, the Jacobins dominated the government and implemented a radical war policy and new social, religious and economic policies. They were associated with the Terror, which swept away their political enemies.

Constitutional Monarchy: Rural Revolt ( causes )

- in 1792 the French began to rebel against the constitutional monarchy by protesting and rioting.

- The peasants realised that their feudal dues weren't going to be completely abolished - they would have to pay compensation.

- They also hated it that the price of grain would not be controlled and that the rich had mainly benefited from the sale of church land - they wanted this land to be sold in smaller amounts which they could afford.

Constitutional Monarchy: Rural Revolt ( events )

1 They rebelled over this and attacked property and people from 1790-1792 across France.

2 The Jacobins started listening to the peasants and promising that they would control the price of grain, remove compensation, defend the revolution and not allow the former elites to take back control, and make better decisions from the centre.

3 There was inflation in prices after price controls were relaxed, so the government printed more money which made it worse.

4 The workers went on strike in 1791 and rioted.

5 The clubs claimed that they would reintroduce price controls and fix inflation.

Constitutional Monarchy: Declaration of Pillnitz (1791)

- Austria and Prussia agreed to intervene in France to end the revolution with the unanimous agreement of the great powers.

- Austria and Prussia threatened war as they thought France was very weak as royalist officers had left and economically very weak, and they assumed if they threatened war then France would give up and give powers back to the King.

Constitutional Monarchy: Declaration of Pillnitz (1791) significance

+ However this declaration wasn't very serious as they stated that all of the European powers would be uniting against France, and France knew that would never happen.

+ As a result of the Pillnitz Declaration, everyone thought the King was in league with the Austrians, and that he had asked them to make the Declaration.

- The King was forced to dismiss his royalist ministers and advisors who were suspected of helping him with this, as a punishment.

- He was made to replace them with politicians hostile towards him who would not support him.

The Revolutionary War - Declaring War

- in April 1792 France thought Austria and Prussia were going to follow through on the Pillnitz Declaration, so they declared war on Austria.

- They also declared war as Austria and Prussia had gained land on France's border in 1789 and 1790.

- Austria fought back, as did Prussia as they were Austria's ally. War began.

Constitutional Monarchy: Brunswick Manifesto

- The Prussians and Austrians were alarmed at the strength of those in France who wanted to dispose the King.

- They issued a document that said they did not want to harm French people and that they would protect the King with force.

Constitutional Monarchy: Brunswick Manifesto (significance)

Now everyone felt that the Prussians and Austrians would launch a full scale invasion of the rest of France in the King's name and that the King was helping them. They wanted the King to go.

- They asked the legislative assembly who refused. Now, they realised they needed an uprising to remove the king

Constitutional Monarchy: Storming of Tuilleries Palace

- The Sans-Culottes removed the Parisian city council and took power.

- The Sans Culottes got into Tuilleries Palace. The King went to the legislative assembly for safety. There was fighting at the palace. The Legislative Assembly passed a law that called on all Frenchmen to fight.

- The Sans-Culottes argued that this couldn't happen without political representation, so the Legislative Assembly allowed them to sit on councils.

- The Sans-Culottes were gaining power.

- The revolutionary National Guard in Paris also gained influence in their calls to remove the King. Some of the politicians offered to protect the King if he would replace the ministers.

- The King refused and looked like he was determined to leave France unprotected.

Constitutional Monarchy: Armoire de Fer

- in the storming of Tuilleries, the Armoire de Fer were found - these were documents that showed the King was working with the Austrians and telling them where the French Revolutionary troops were, which meant the Austrians were able to invade more easily.

- Lafayette (the leader of the National Guard) defected to the Austrians on the 17th of August. It seemed like anyone could betray France now.

Constitutional Monarchy: September Massacres

The Commune which controlled the legislative assembly began to panic. They thought anyone could betray France and help the Prussians invade. Royalists could help the Prussians once they got there, but most of the loyal soldiers were fighting the invading forces outside of Paris. The prisons were thought to be full with royalists who had been imprisoned when the Sans Culottes took power. The commune called for the prisoners to be massacred. The Sans Culottes carried out this order, nothing was done to stop them. Many of those killed were actually petty criminals, they weren't even royalists

Constitutional Monarchy: Battle of Valmy

The King was finally put on trial in December 1792 as the revolutionaries felt strong enough to do so, and that they had to stop any more betrayals. He was charged with 'Treason and crimes against the state'. The Sans Culottes had found the Armoire de Fer when they stormed Tuilleries. He was found guilty. Now that the King had been found guilty his sentence had to be decided. The newly elected convention voted between removing him peacefully and exiling him or killing him. The Gironduns mostly voted to exile him, the Jacobins voted to kill him. The vote narrowly won to kill him. This was done in January of 1793.

what were France's natural frontiers?

Rhine and Alps

What were France's annexed territories?

Piedmont, Parma, Tuscany, Papal States, Illyrian Provinces, Netherland

What were France's satellite states?

created a buffer zone to protect France from attack Switzerland, Spain (ruled by Napoleon's brother), Naples, Italy, Confederation of the Rhine, Netherlands, Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Sweden

reasons why he made satellite states

- Protect France from attack by old monarchies

- Export Civil Code, Concordat and other benefits of Napoleon's rule elswehre in Europe

- Provide oppressed people with liberty, equality, and prosperity - Could exploit territories which helped with military domination

- His imperial vision was a natural progression from his personal dynastic ambition

- To keep his family and allies loyal by giving them thrones

Leadership

Napoleon had excellent military leadership.

He issued the orders for his whole army to follow, which allowed for the unity of command.

He also chose his battles well and made peace agreements where it would benefit him.

He also kept the coalition powers divided.

He knew he couldn't defeat Britain as he needed a strong navy to invade, and he didn't have one, so he set up the continental system. This was a system designed to economically damage Britain, by forbidding European countries he controlled by trading with Britain, and he hoped this would make Britain stop fighting him.

His enemies also sometimes fought amongst themselves, rather than fighting him and didn't unite together very well against him.

Napoleon had committed soldiers.

He kept his soldiers committed by issuing daily bulletins which emphasised military glory, patriotism and comradeship.

He was happy to twist the truth for this he did this in the Egypt Campaign where he emphasised their victory at the Battle of the Pyramids but minimised their defeat in the whole campaign.

Napoleon explained to his soldiers that he was committed to spreading the principles of the of revolution, was protecting the revolution.

This inspired his troops as they had something idealistic to fight for.

Many of the soldiers were also committed to the revolution. They were also committed to the principles of the revolution and spreading revolutionary ideals.

He also promised them and land and riches after battles-like in Egypt.

Napoleon's army was very well organised and trained.

He called it the Grand Armee. It worked well as one whole. He had trained them in the Northern Camps just before the Battle of Trafalgar. It was divided into corps of 25,000-30,000 men who

could be assigned particular tasks and battles. The corps were separated into infantry, cavalry, reserve artillery and elite

groups. They were trained separately and used separately for the best purpose. Other countries tended to keep their types

of soldier together and train together, which was less efficient. The division of the grand armee into corps, and the corps into different types of soldiers, allowed for flexibility on the battlefield. different groups could be sent in to carry out

• Measures were put in place to make sure the troops were mobile and could move quickly. They were instructed to live off

the land and did not rely on military food supplies. They marched 20-25 km a day.

• Napoleon made sure war was a bonne affair - which means that war was a profitable enterprise in the Napoleonic Empire as once battles were won the soldiers would loot the cities, and make the conquered countries pay them indemnities (this is

money countries have to pay after losing a war). This made the soldiers supportive as they could get very wealthy from

fighting. It also made the wars affordable in the long term for France.

The Battle of Marengo

France vs. Austria, France won. Got Northern Italy. The French drew the Austrians in to a column to follow

them down a main road. Then the French sent a group of soldiers to surround and attack the Austrians on the main road. Napoleon launched propaganda

claiming it was a huge success.

It strengthened Napoleon's position in Paris as First Consul.

Battle of Hohenlinden

France vs. Austria in Germany

gained German kingdoms and keep the gains in Italy.

Peace of Amiens (1802)

Britain wanted to weaken France, and France wanted to weaken Britain. They reached an agreement. The French withdrew from the Papal States and Naples in Italy to make them less powerful, and in return, Britain surrendered most of its recent overseas conquests including Egypt to make them weaker.

The Battle of Trafalgar-

France vs Britain at sea. Britain won. Britain, Austria and Russia decided to form another coalition to try

and defeat Napoleon.

Napoleon began to amass his army in Northern France and training them rigorously. They became his powerful grand armee. He trained them rigorously. He planned to ship them all across the channel to invade Britain. However, before Napoleon could do this he had to defeat the British navy. Napoleon planned to do this by sailing from Trafalgar in Spain, with a combined Franco-Spanish fleet, and fighting the British. Napoleon set sail and met the British. The British had a better formation as their two lines of ships drove straight through the Franco-Spanish line. Towards the end of the battle Napoleon knew he was losing, so he gave up. He then marched his grand armee to confront Austria at the Battle of Ulm, hoping he could defeat

them instead.

Battle of Ulm (1805)

France vs. Austria, France won, wheeling motion. Then defeated Russians

Battle of Austerlitz (1805)

France vs Russians and Austrians-

France drew the Austrians and Russians out of the forest. France won.

what happened in 1806 to 1807

Napoleon gained Spain. He also defeated Austria and Russia again. He also defeated Prussia. This allowed him to take over the remainder of Germany and Italy, and Eastern Europe. He never ruled Russia but for now they had to do as he said. It carried on like this for 5 years.

What was the Catholic Church like under Napoleon?

Catholic Church was still strong-had land, priests and believers. Under the Directory, there had been a strengthening of the Catholic Church again. It was a social bond that was threatened. France and the papal states (land in Italy ruled by the pope) had been at war. People who believed in Catholicism tended to rebel and could lean towards royalism.

What was the 1801 Civil Concordat?

It allowed Catholicism and said that the separation of church and state would end

the Catholic Church agreed to not try and recover their lost land

the church would become state-controlled with the clergy paid by the government and they all had to take an oath to be loyal to it (so that they didn't lead rebellions)

all religions would be tolerated.

The French bishops would be completely independent of the Roman Catholic Church

How did Napoleon anger the pope?

he announced that 16" August would become St Napoleon's Day and celebrated throughout the empire-removing the current saintly occupant

What was the economy life pre-napoleon?

only a few thousand francs left in the country's treasury. The country's income and spending were dealt with in the same department. Direct taxes were collected by regional governments. The land registry to calculate direct tax was still incomplete. Indirect taxes were quite low and organised regionally. There was no central bank issuing currency, which made controlling inflation harder. Inflation was constant problem as there were no rules over the standard value of currency.

who did Napoleon appoint to fix the economy?

Appointed Gaudin as minister of Finance from 1799-1814-an expert, and Barbe-Marbois at the treasury. Divided Ministry

of Finances (for spending income) from the Treasury (income spending).

What did they fix?

Tax collection was reorganised. Direct taxes would

now be organised and collected by the central government. The land registry was improved. Indirect taxes were increased

and organised centrally. Direct taxing remained fairly steady at 250 million francs a year-around 1/3 of government income. Indirect taxes increased by 400% from 1806-1812 and by 1813 made up % of government income. When countries were defeated the Napoleonic army plundered the country and made them pay indemnities to make up extra revenue.

How did Banking improve?

The Bank of France was established as a private bank with shareholders, but it had a range of public

functions, like issuing paper notes. It had some problems, after a risky business venture in 1805 it was threatened with instability, so it tried to import silver from other countries, but it ended in failure. To avert a more serious crisis, Napoleon imposed stricter controls on the bank

How was the war paid for?

The war was expensive but it was paid for through taxation and indemnities from defeated countries

What was the country like pre-Napoleon?

Most country were illiterate. The church ran the schools, which kept them stronger.

Education

What did he decide to do to fix the Education problem?

Napoleon wasn't too worried about this. Instead, he wanted to introduce some education to train officials and military leaders, and to bind the nation together behind him.

What happened to everyone else?

he left most common education to the church, where people learnt basic literacy and numeracy in primary schools run by the church, local\community and individuals

How did he reform Education?

He set up 45 lycees (selective schools under central control) and some more ecoles centrales (schools to train officials and anmy leaders, which were less selective and under less central control). The state provided 6400 scholarships for the lycees and ecoles centrales. However, 1/3 of these went to the sons of military officers and government officials, and the rest went to secondary school pupils, who were all noble children as they were the only ones who could afford the fees.

What happened to girls?

Napoleon didn't think there was any point educating girls as he said 'marriage was their destiny.

What happened to the scholarships?

The state provided 6400 scholarships for the lycees and ecoles centrales. However, 1/3 of these went to the sons of military officers and government officials, and the rest went to secondary school pupils, who were all noble children as they were the only ones who could afford the fees.

What was so special about the schools?

The schools were highly centralised. There was one syllabus and identical textbooks with military discipline. Napoleon boasted that he knew what all pupils were studying on any given day at any given time in France.

What did he do for Universities

Napoleon opened a university to train teachers in the lycees and ecoles centrales in 1808. It demanded total obedience and loyalty to the new state-they had to swear an oath.

What were Judges like in Napoleon's rule?

Judges were appointed for life. They were closely supervised and regularly purged. The role of different courts was made clearer. House arrests occurred.

What was introduced under Napoleon?

Imprisonment without trial was introduced- although it was never extensively used.

What were the police like under Napoleon rule?

The police acted as spies, imposed censorship and carried out surveillance of possible subversives. They searched for army deserters and raided areas thought to be sheltering draft dodgers or enemy agents.

Who was the police helped by in Napoleon's rule

The police were helped by gendarmes-an armed police force-there were 18,000 stationed throughout France.

Who was Fouche and what did he do?

Fouche was the minister of the police, and submitted daily reports to Napoleon.

What were prefects like under Napoleon rule?

Prefects led departments, and all local officials were selected by them. The prefects collected tax and organised conscription. The prefects would place any suspects under house arrest spread propaganda, monitor public opinion and report on any suspicious political activity.

The Civil Code of 1804

people could be placed under house arrest with little evidence Napoleon changed family law so that husbands could send adulterous wives or defiant children to prison. Divorce was very

difficult to obtain-although this was the case everywhere then-which meant people (often women) had to stay in very unhappy or even abusive marriages

What was introduced to the colonies?

Slavery was reintroduced into the colonies. All workmen in France had to keep a livret which was a work permit and record of employment, without this it was impossible to obtain a job.

what did Napoleon do to keep his politicians on his side?

Napoleon strengthened the economy and taxation so that more capital was available to lavish gifts on politicians. He also gave them gifts of land from the nationalisation of church land in the past, particularly after the pope promised to not try and recover them.

what was the legion of honour?

A state title called a legion of honour awarded to whoever Napoleon saw fit. You got an honorary medal and a small annual award. 38,000 were distributed.

How did Napoleon make his rule more kinglike in 1808?

In 1808 those who had been awarded titles were given noble titles, like princes, counts and barons. As it had been under the Ancien Regime. Some came with an annual income and/or were hereditary. Many were given to military figures.

what did Napoleon do to keep his Senators on his side?

Senators were given large country estates, palatial residences, a large annual income, and were allowed to lead whole

regions.

what did Napoleon do to keep his Army officers, government officials and minor members of the new nobility on his side?

Army officers, government officials and minor members of the new nobility were given financial presents which were generous enough to buy a house in Paris and live in comfort.

How did Napoleon become First Consul for life?

In December 1800 a group tried to assassinate Napoleon, by trying to explode a bomb in a barrel in a cart next to Napoleon on his way to the opera. Napoleon was shaken but unharmed. As a way to keep Napoleon in power, and to show their gratitude the French named Napoleon as First Consul for life, with the right to nominate his successor. The decision was approved by plebiscite-local leaders used to tamper with their results to please Napoleon.

What did Napoleon do to get his laws passed with ease?

Napoleon appointed more senators, and it became more powerful. The Tribunate and Legislature barely met. The Tribunate was purged (Napoleon removed anyone who may oppose him) in 1802 for criticising some of the laws Napoleon wanted to introduce. Napoleon also 'packed" (filled) the legislature with his supporters.

How did Napoleon become more king like?

His court and ceremonies were like royal courts and ceremonies, and he insisted on manners and rituals that seemed like royal ceremonies. Napoleon gave individuals titles and rewards in return for their loyalty, which seemed to be much like the nobility, although they didn't have land.

What happened in 1804 regarding Napoleon?

In 1804 there were lots of royalist plots, but none of them succeeded. This culminated when a group of the Bourbon royal family was accused of plotting to murder Napoleon and take over the government. Napoleon had him arrested and executed, even though this was against French law Napoleon said he was entitled to do this under Corsican law.

How did Napoleon become Emperor?

The Senate panicked again. In an effort to secure Napoleon's rule, and thank him for all he had done in giving them gifts and 'securing the revolution, a motion was passed announcing the Napoleon would now be called Emperor of the French and that this would be passed own through his family. A plebiscite accepted it - as the local officials wanted to please Napoleon, and as the government knew the soldiers would probably vote no, so they simply added them all as yes on their behalf, for half a million votes.

The Coronation of Napoleon

Napoleon arranged for a spectacular coronation at Notre Dame Cathedral. In the presence of the pope Napoleon crowned himself as Emperor and then crowned his wife Josephine as Empress.

The Coup of Brumaire - Events

Sieyés moved the councils out of Paris to Saint-Cloud on 10 November 1799 on the pretext of a neo-Jacobin plot. Napoleon was persuaded to address the Councils. In the Council of Five Hundred Napoleon was attacked by deputies, but his soldiers, alerted by his brother, came to his rescue. The Councils were cleared from their meeting rooms by military force and the plotters issued a decree abolishing the Directory. Instead, there was to be a government headed by three leaders, called consuls. However, napoleon dominated he was Consul for ten years with complete executive power in war and peace. The other two consuls merely accepted his rule overwhelming majority in favour and became simply advisers. Napoleon was responsible for the new constitution in 1799

Jourdan's Law June 1798

Conscription was reintroduced to rebuild the size of the army. Provoked widespread resistance.

The Second Coalition -

Encouraged by British success, the Second Coalition of Britain, Austria, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Naples and Portugal was formed in 1799. As the revolutionary war continued the French armies were pushed back into France from Germany and Italy. This meant the Directory could not continue to be funded by plunder. And the threat of invasion made it unpopular. There was increasing disillusion with the Directory and support for a change of government.

Coup of Prairial

With the war going badly and the Directors getting the blame, the influence of the neo-Jacobins in the Councils increased. They forced the removal of two Directors and passed two new laws. The first was a forced loan on the rich.

The Coup of Brumaire - Causes

In late 1799 Abbé Sieyès, a leading revolutionary figure since 1789 and now a Director, plotted a coup. He wanted to restore the power of the executive and cut back the influence of the radicals. He needed the support of the army and of a general, and his eventual choice was Napoleon.

The Egypt Campaign 1798 - Motive

This was an ambitious plan to undermine Britain by blocking its overland trade routes to India and establishing a French presence in the Middle East by taking Egypt, then part of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire.

The Egypt Campaign 1798 - Events

In May a French expedition took Malta and landed at Alexandria in Egypt. Modern artillery and the battle tactic of line and column in a mixed order led to a victory over Egyptian forces at the Battle of the Pyramids with few losses. However, on 1 August the British revealed a major limitation in Napoleon's strength by destroying the French fleet in Alexandria at the Battle of the Nile. The British ships, led by the great British naval commander Nelson, daringly raided the French by sailing in low water between the French ships and the shore. The French army, though victorious, was stranded. They advanced into Gaza and took Jaffa and Haifa. At Jaffa 1,400 prisoners were killed and the city plundered

The Egypt Campaign 1798 - Outcome

Napoleon left his army, which was now suffering from disease, and returned to France.

The Egypt Campaign 1798 - Significance

His reputation was not diminished by the essential failure of this expedition, but rather was heightened with more evidence of his military triumphs.

Italian Campaign 1796-97

Napoleon fought an unexpectedly successful campaign in Italy.

France had been fighting the Austrians and their allies in Italy with little success.

He took over a small army and with his charismatic leadership won a series of victories.