Comprehensive Review of Human Anatomy and Physiology Exams

Direction of motion

Detected by the hair cells in the semicircular canals.

Crossed extensor reflex

The response when the flexor muscles of one arm contract in a withdrawal reflex, and the extensor muscles of the other arm contract.

Astigmatism

A condition due to an abnormality in the curvature of the lens or cornea, resulting in some areas of blurry vision.

Anterior root

Location of axons of somatic motor neurons.

Chemoreceptors

Class of sensory receptors exemplified by olfactory receptors.

Hyperpolarized

Condition when a resting potential becomes negative.

Cauda equina

A bundle of nervous tissue that extends beyond the tip of the spinal cord.

Subdural hematoma

Condition where blood accumulates between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater due to a blow to the head.

Action potential sequence

The main steps in the generation of an action potential: D, F, G, A, B, C, E.

Oligodendrocytes

Cells that produce myelin in the brain and spinal cord.

Left frontal lobe

Lobes of the cerebrum most likely affected by a stroke in a patient unable to move their right arm and has trouble speaking.

Myelinated axon

What gives rise to the color of the white matter in the brain.

Arachnoid granulations

Where cerebrospinal fluid reenters the blood.

Potassium

Ion to which the resting cell membrane is more permeable.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter not secreted in sufficient quantity by neurons in the basal nuclei, leading to the development of Parkinson's disease.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Pituitary gland

Connected to the hypothalamus via the infundibulum.

Reticular formation injury

Might result in unconsciousness or coma.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that inhibits digestion and increases heart rate during exercise.

Sympathetic postganglionic fibers

Fiber types that are typically adrenergic.

Broca's area

Area of the brain most likely damaged if a soldier is unable to speak after a brain injury.

Frontal lobe

Lobe of the brain used when answering a question.

Information flow after eating

Order of information flow: Stimulation of sensory receptors → impulse sent to CNS → sensation → perception.

Modified amino acids

Neurotransmitters that include Dopamine, Serotonin, and Epinephrine.

Threshold

Condition reached when a neuron is stimulated causing changes in the membrane potential to the point where voltage-gated Na+ channels open.

Occipital lobe

Area of the brain that might be damaged in an accident involving blunt-force trauma to the head resulting in loss of vision.

Disorder affecting myelin

Involves an immune response that affects the myelin coating on axons throughout the spinal cord and brain, triggering inflammation and leaving scars.

Multiple sclerosis

A chronic disease affecting the central nervous system.

Otosclerosis

A condition that can be treated with a cochlear implant.

Signal transduction rates

The speed at which nerve fibers conduct signals, with myelinated fibers conducting faster.

Farsightedness after age 45

Results from loss of lens elasticity.

Guillain-Barre syndrome

A condition where the immune system attacks and degrades the myelin sheath of PNS axons, leading to poor muscle function.

Cranial nerves with sensory fibers

Olfactory nerves (CN I), optic nerves (CN II), and vestibulocochlear nerves (CN VIII).

Reflex arc components

Receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector.

Referred pain

Pain that feels like it is coming from an area of the body other than the area being stimulated.

Corticospinal tracts impulses

Sensory in nature and control perception of touch.

Refraction of light

Occurs when light passes at an angle from one medium to another with a different density.

Synaptic knobs

Located at the ends of axons.

Dorsal root ganglia

Contain cell bodies of sensory neurons.

Fovea centralis

The region of the retina that provides the sharpest vision.

Hair cells of the spiral organ

Located on the basilar membrane and depolarize in response to sound.

Function of sensory receptors

To detect changes in and outside the body.

Cranial nerves for eye movement

Oculomotor nerves (CN III), trochlear nerves (CN IV), and abducens nerves (VI).

Postcentral gyrus functional area

Somatosensory cortex.

Function of basal nuclei

Facilitate and help coordinate voluntary movement.

Somatic nervous system functions

Walking, looking to the left, picking up a glass.

Autonomic nervous system functions

Heart rate, digestion, vasoconstriction.

Muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs

Receptors for proprioception.

Primary motor area location

The precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe.

Spinothalamic tract destination

Thalamus.

Sensory fibers in optic chiasma

Originate from the medial (nasal) side of each retina.

Receptor potential

Local graded potential that reflects the strength of the stimulus.

Sympathetic nervous system

Prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations.

Temperature receptors

Free nerve endings.

Auditory tube

Runs between the throat and the middle ear.

Dermatome

Region of skin innervated by a single spinal nerve.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter that has already been released into the synaptic cleft is taken back into the presynaptic neuron.

Pulmonary embolism

Condition in which an artery in the lungs becomes obstructed by a clot that originated in another part of the body.

Pulmonary embolism

The condition in which an artery in the lungs becomes obstructed by a clot that originated in another part of the body.

ADH deficiency

The cause of diabetes insipidus.

Systemic circuit

It carries oxygen-poor blood to the heart.

Atherosclerosis

Plaques containing cholesterol and other fats accumulate in the vessel walls.

Growth hormone

Enhances the movement of amino acids into cells.

Cardiac conduction system

SA node → AV node → AV bundle → Purkinje fibers.

Atrioventricular valves during ventricular contraction

The mitral and tricuspid valves are both closed.

Blood vessels with greatest volume

Veins.

Hormone concentration control

Negative feedback.

Triiodothyronine secretion

Thyroid gland.

Blood pressure in large systemic arteries

Greatest during ventricular systole.

Cause of Type 2 diabetes mellitus

An insensitivity of cells to insulin.

Bradycardia

An abnormally slow heart rate.

Petechiae

Bruise-like spots that may develop on the skin as a result of a low platelet count.

Conditions for sickling of hemoglobin

Decreased tissue oxygen saturation.

Oxygen-poor blood chambers

The right atrium and right ventricle.

First heart sound cause

Closure of the atrioventricular valves soon after the beginning of ventricular systole.

Diabetes mellitus effect on bodily fluids

Increased urine osmotic pressure.

Steroid hormone effect

It directly causes protein synthesis.

Blood entering the right atrium

Comes from venae cavae and coronary sinus.

Normal pacemaker of the heart

Sinoatrial node.

Rh-negative individual

Their red blood cells lack the Rh antigens.

Growth hormone and IGF-1

Signals the release of IGF-1 from the liver.

Sympathetic stimulation effect on heart

Increased stroke volume.

Iron component

Heme.

Pulse at the wrist

Radial artery.

Prothrombin time test

Used to evaluate the extrinsic clotting mechanism.

Mitral valve location

Located between the left atrium and left ventricle.

Non-branching vessel from aorta

Pulmonary artery.

Blood clot formation requirement

Albumin is not required.

Normal pH of blood

7.3 to 7.5.

Cortisol action

To stimulate the production of glucose from noncarbohydrates.

Frank-Starling law effect

Increased diastolic stretching of myocardial fibers produces increased stroke volume.

Upregulated cell

Has an increase in the number of receptors available for binding.

Plasminogen

Converted to a clot-dissolving substance.

Reduced venous return

Reduced end-diastolic volume and, without compensation, reduced cardiac output.

Thyroid gland location

Anterior to the trachea.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Stimulates the release of hormones from the adrenal cortex.

Vagus nerve stimulation

Parasympathetic impulses that decrease heart rate.

Parathyroid hormone secretion control

Primarily controlled by blood calcium concentration.

Sickle cell disease cause

A genetic mutation.

Melatonin

Produced in response to the absence of light in the environment and is associated with circadian rhythms.