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Levels of Processing (theory)
the deeper we encode, the more likely we will be able to retrieve something later on. There is deep encoding and shallow encoding (think about this and self reference)
Generation Effect
generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention.
Self reference effect
relating stimuli to own life to help you learn better
Specificity Coding (same as context dependent learning)
recall is better when the context you are encoding is the same as the context you are retrieving (study and test in the same place!)
How is context dependent learning different from levels of processing?
levels of processing is more about what you do, context is more about where you are
State dependent learning
about the "mood" you are in for studying and testing (excitement breeds excitement)
How is state dependent different than context dependent
External versus internal
What is transfer-appropriate learning?
When you are encoding, you want to match the form of retrieval
What are the two types of Amnesia?
retrograde (struggles to remember before amnesia onset) and anterograde (struggles to form new memories)
Graded Amnesia
When amnesia is most severe for events that occurred just prior to an injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events.
Sleep and memory
good sleep = better memory
How is sleep related to memory consolidation and why?
During sleep, your brain encodes and retains. It is helpful to sleep after learning because there is no way to interfere with consolidation process
Memory Consolidation
the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption
Standard model
Hippocampus is highly involved with new memories, but less involved in retrieving old memories (think Hippocampus is a new band not an old one)
Multiple trace model
hippocampus is very involved with new memories and old memories (think Hippocampus is new but also will likely be classic someday)
What does fMRI show in terms of Multiple trace model?
Hippocampus is active in both old memories and recent (think of remembering and encoding or imagining)
Changes in Memory across lifespan
Autobiographical memory
Reminiscence Bump
late and early adulthood have better memory (20s-30s) all very big life events that you will likely recall)
narrative rehearsal process
The idea that we remember some life events better because we rehearse them. This idea was proposed by Neisser as an explanation for "flashbulb" memories. (think of this in terms of 9/11 or the story you frequently tell about your toxic ex)
Schema
mental shortcuts of the meaning behind something (and the experiences you've had)
Examples of schemas
If you are sick and you ask your friend to get you medicine, if they have it in their bathroom, they will go to your bathroom to get it
Script
expectation in a specific setting of behavior, (think about moments where you maintain the script or break the script)
How do you differentiate between schema and script?
Script: expectation of sequence of events. Schema: mental representation of what that event is generally. SCRIPT IS MORE ABOUT TIMELINE, SCHEMA IS MORE ABOUT DESCRIPTION
Eye witness testimony and memory (problems)
every time you recall a memory you are changing it slightly, misleading post even information, leading questions (the wording of these questions)
Example of eye witness testimony and leading memory (car accident)
different responses based on different leading questions
What about line-ups? (prisoners)
if someone doesn't have a super accurate memory, you will just pick out of what is presented. People become a lot more confident in their choice if they receive feedback from their authorities
Source monitoring error
occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source (learn about a story from a friend, but then hears the report on the news next, and you attribute your knowledge to the news because that has more authority)
Misinformation effect
when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event
Flashbulb memory
A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event that you learned about, not necessarily experienced (woke up on 9/11 learning on the news versus actually experiencing it (autobiographical)
Autobiographical memory
the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story
Remembering as a reconstructive process
remembering things that are out of context (this is why schemas are important)
Recall as reconstructive?
Other pieces of memory can be retained in addition to the intended (analogy of garage with Christmas box)
conceptual knowledge
knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties
definitional approach to categorization
we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of the category
Prototypical approach
heuristic to determine the "typical" into a category
exemplar appraoch
drawing on all different examples to create an ideal
Typicality Effect (Prototype Approach)
ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly than less
Exemplar approach
we run a ton of comparisons based on what we already have in memory
Hierarchal organization of categories (subordinate, superordinate, and basic)
Superordinate: BROAD (super BROAD) (Vehicles)
Basic: Exemplars (Cars)
Subordinate: SUPER SPECIFIC (Ford)
You gain the most information when you search for subordinate categories!
How does exemplar differ from prototypical approach?
depth of processing
the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered
A toddler is just beginning to recognize cars and an adult man is a professional car salesman, who has a an exemplar approach and who has a prototype?
The man's is based on prototype because he has enough abstract knowledge
EXEMPLAR
TYPICALITY
PROTOTYPE
DOGGIEST DOG
DEFINITIONAL
ALL THE GENERAL KNOWLEDGE OF SOMETHING
Broad to Specific (approaches)
Exemplar is broader, Prototype is specific (think about experience and overall education of something)
Retrograde Amnesia
You will remember your parents but not your recent friend
Self-image hypothesis (bump)
lots of important events happen during this time that aid in the development of your identity. These memories cluster and are highly accessible!
Cognitive hypothesis (bump)
posits that memories are better encoded because it is during a time of change (better retention) followed by stability. EXAMPLE: getting married, starting school, career, etc.
Cultural life-script hypothesis (bump)
Scripted (cultural) positive or negative life events will cue better memory because it is expected. (positive better though) then people look for violations to this norm. Shows that unexpected life events definitely have an impact.
What brain regions are implicated in memory and emotions
Greater activation in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus when memories are emotionally charged and personal (example of viewing pictures you took of something vs someone else's) shows that medial temporal lobe regions like Amygdala as well are vital in remembering important life events
Controversy behind recovered memories
Supermemorizers versus higher autobiographical memory
Supermemorizers (memorizing the 10 by 5 images run.
Misinformation effect and corresponding studies
consider the story of the man who stole the backpack, people were posed different questions that lead them to the misinformation effect. or Ronald Cotton for a crime he did not commit
How do we determine what the prototype of a category will be?
What neural findings do e have looking at evidence for prototype and exemplar models in the brain?
What is the network model of categorization?
We create connections as part of categories in our minds (think of a canary and all we can say about a canary)
pros and cons to Quillan's hierarchal model (network model of categorization)
Cons: not all qualities can apply to objects of the same category. For example, Penguins are birds like Canaries but obviously cannot fly
Examples for "spreading activation"
We see widespread and concentrated activation in the brain when there is category relevant info. Less when there is category irrelevant information (then confined to visual cortex and temporal regions)
Connectionist model (networks are "trained")
Ex. A canary will be more recognized as a bird than an Ostrich
Compare and contrast connectionist vs. Network model
Network is more about the Myriad of connections in a category whereas connectionist posits that it is through nodes with different activation routes.
Sensory functional hypothesis
our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes function
multiple-factor approach
distributed representation theory focusing on searching for attributes that determine division of concepts within a category
How knowledge impacts categorization (top down processing)
We use what we know to categorize. The more we know about something, the more specific we will be able to categorize that thing
What do we learn about how we as humans categorize faces? (study, results, issues, methods, etc. discussed in class)
Faces were taken and generated, and merged (Ashby's study) Humans extract category details even when we are not trying to. People can detect who belongs to the same family by similarity. Generalization is best when people can detect differences in similarity.
Better encoding to LTM comes from?
Visualization, Self reference, and self testing!
Studying tips for better retrieval
-Take notes long hand
-Test frequently
-Spaced testing (shorter bursts over time)
-Interweaved practice (different skills back and forth)
Study about recall, comparing free vs. cued
Free recall-40 percent remembered
Cued recall-75 percent remembered
Weapons effect
we are more likely to remember other aspects of the event if a weapon ISN'T fired, but if it is, our attention becomes quickly targeted
Errors of misinformation
-Familiarity
-Suggestion
-
When is it better to use the exemplar approach?
SMALLER CATEGORIES
When is it better to use the prototype approach?
LARGER CATEGORIES (use exemplar first, then prototypes later)
There is evidence of different regions of the brain tracking different approaches!
People and retention of hierarchal categories
We love basic categories because they are "psychologically special" we don't gain much when we get more specific, (go down levels) and tend to lose more when we go up (get more broad)
Evidence for semantic network model
it would take us longer to respond to "a robin is a living thing" than "a robin is a bird" (shows that distance of connection matters!) Also posits that these statements can prime our minds for later
