biology finals

reactant

reactant

a substance that starts a cheimical reaction

product

a substance that results from chemical reaction

energy

difined as the ability to do work

ATP stand for

Adenosine triphosphate

endothermic reaction summary

reactants + heat —> products

activation energy

Provides the “push” that is needed to start a chemical reaction

cheimical reaction requires ___ to begin

Activation energy

energy

enzymes

Are catalysts that speed up the chemical reactions

what do enzymes do

enzymes brings reactants together so they dont have to expend energy

what is an example of enzymes

By binding reactants at the active site, enzymes also position reactants correctly, so they do not have to overcome intermolecular forces that would otherwise push them apart. This allows the molecules to interact with less energy.

active site

is specific for the reactants in a reaction the enzyme catalyzes

an example of an active site

similar, to puzzle pieces that are fitting together. The active site can only bind certain substrates.

what does ATP ( adenosine Triphosphate) do ?

ATP transfers energy form the breakdown of food molecules to cell functions

ADP

ADP is changed into ATP when a phosphate group added

Cellular resperation

This process releases the energy in glucose to make ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the molecule that powers all the work of cells.

what is Cellular respirations summary

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Chemical Energy

what are the reactions of cellular respiration

• glycolysis

• krebs cycle

• electron transport chain (ETC)

Aerobic and Anaerobic

are the two types of cellular resperation

Aerobic

occurs in the presences of oxygen

Anaerobic

Occurs in the absense of oxygen

Inter membrane space

the space between the inner and outer membrane

2nd stage of celluar resperation..

The krebs cycle (which takes place in the matrix)

the third stage of celluar respiration

electron transport ( located in the inner membrane)

Glycolysis

Occurs in the cytosol of the cytoplasm of the cell and can occur without the presences of oxygen.

1st stage

reactants: 2 ATP, Glucose, NAD+.

Produces: 2 net ATP, (4 ATP total), 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate milecules

results of Glycolysis

Energy is needed at the start of glycolysis to split the glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules. These two molecules go on to stage II of cellular respiration. The energy to split glucose is provided by two molecules of ATP.

Krebs cycle requires

oxygen

Krebs cycle’s first product.

Is citric acid

Pyruvate

Has three carbon atoms and is split apart before the krebs cycle begins.

what are the steps for the Krebs cycle

1. The Krebs cycle begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon molecule called OAA. This produces citric acid, which has six carbon atoms.

2. After citric acid forms, it goes through a series of reactions that release energy. The energy is captured in molecules of NADH, ATP, and FADH2. Carbon dioxide is also released as a waste product of these reactions.

3. The final step of the Krebs cycle regenerates OAA, the molecule that began the Krebs cycle. This molecule is needed for the next turn through the cycle. Two turns are needed because glycolysis produces two pyruvate molecules when it splits

what are the Krebs cycles products

4 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FAGH²

what does the krebs cycle start with?

Pyruvate from Glycolysis

OAA (Oxaloaccetate)

A four-carbon molecule

where are electron carrier molescules arranged?

in ETC (Electron Transport Chains)

what does ETC produce?

They produce ATP and NADPH (which are forms of energy)

example of ETC

A ball bouncing on stairs is like the electrons in a transport chain.

Electrons in transport chains behave much like a ball bouncing down a set of stairs – a little energy is lost with each bounce.

how does ETC make ATP

energy must be transported from glucose to NADH, and then is passed to ATP

where does ETC occur

In the inner mitochondria

what does ETC require

Oxygen

what happens in the ETC stage

In this stage, energy carriers from NADH and FADH2, which result from Krebs cycle, is transferred to produce ATP.

how/where are High-energy Electrons released?

High-energy electrons are released from NADH and FADH2, as they move along ETC.

what does ATP synthase do?

ATP synthase acts as a channel protein, helping the hydrogen ions to cross the membrane.

how many ATP does ETC produce?

Around 32-34

what is the importance of oxygen?

After passing through the electron transport chain, the “used” electrons combine with oxygen to form water. ( H2O)

oxygen is required; if oxygen was not present, this process cannot occur.

fermentations

Lactic acid fermentation , and Alcohol fermentation

what does Lactic acid fermentation start with?

Starts with glycolysis when glucose is converted to two pyruvate molecules.

what are the products of Lactic acid fermentation

Lactate , and NAD+

what is interphase? (S phase)

a stage during which chromosomes are replicated and copied DNA replication occurs

Mitosis phases (in order)

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

Prophase

During this stage, Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and nuclear membrane breaks down. stage 1

Metaphase

During this stage, spindle dibers attach to the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids. The sister chromatids line up at the equator, or center, of the cell. stage 2

Anaphase

During this phase sister chromatids separate and the centromeres divide, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the shorting of the spindle fibers. stage 3

Telophase

During this stage, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin (consist of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes) stage 4

what happens during cytokinesis

During this stage, the cytoplasm splits in half and the cell divides

Mitosis final stage

prophase —> metaphase —> anaphase —> Telophase —. Cytokinesis

what is the end result of Mitosis

two new cells, with a set of chromosomes identical to the parent cells

what is cell division

how organisms grow and repair themselves, also shows how many organism produce offspring

what are Gametes

Haploid Cells

what Zygote

Diploid Cells

what are parts of the cell

spindle Fibers, Chromatids, Centrioles

Spindle Fibers

Helps chromosome move during cell division

Fragmentation

occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or peices, and each fragment develops into a new organism

What does Meiosis produce?

Gametes, reproductive cells, and phosphate groups

what is reproduction?

the process by which organisms give rise to offspring

what two ways does reproduction occur

sexual and asexual reproduction

what does sexual reproduction do?

the combining genetic material form two parents

what does asexual reproduction do?

produces offspring genetically identical to the one parent

what is Cytokinesis?

Is the division of the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells, resulting in two genteically identical daughter cells

what is the first step in cell division in

Mitosis, a process in which the nucleus of the cell divides

what is a chromosome?

a coiled structure made of DNA and protein

what do Prokaryotic cells have?

A singular circular chromosome, no nucleus and few cell strutures

what do Eukaryotic Cells have?

Multiple chromoesomes contained within a nucleus

when does Meiosis I begin?

after DNA replicates during interphase

what is something common in both Meiosis I and Meiosis II

both cells go through the same four phases

what does DNA contain?

Genes

where DNA located?

With Chromosomes

what does DNA do

Contains instructions for proteins

waht does protein do?

Determine the structure and function of cells

what does RNA do?

Carries information from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm which helps addists in protein assembly

where are chromosomes found?

In the nucleus

where is protein found?

In ribosomes and cytoplasm

what are some enzymes that helps in DNA Replication

Helicase, DNA polymerase, and Ligas

What does Helicase do?

Opens up or “unwinds” strands, by breaking hydrogen bonds. which are located in between bases, as result makes a fork

What does Polymerase do?

adds bases on leading strands (5’ to 3’), also copies peices

what does ligase do?

Seals the fragments, know as “Okazaki fragments” ocated on lagging strands (5’ to 3’)

what are lagging strands???

(5’ to 3’)

what is the summary of central dogma?

DNA —> RNA —> Protein

How is Central dogma done?

with Transcription and Translation

what does transcription do?

uses DNA as a template to make RNA molecules known as messenger RNA (mRNA_)

what does translation do?

RNA molecules then leaves the nucleus and goes to the a ribosomes in the cytoplasm, (translation reads the genetic code in mRNA and makes a protein

what does DNA stand for

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Mendel’s experiment

Mendel experiemnts with genetic crosses and pea plant

Griffith’s experiment

Griffith showed that a substance could be transferred to harmless bacteria and make them deadly. He called this process transformation

Avey, Macleod & Mccarty Experiment

Avery and his team showed that the substance that transformed in griffths’s experiment was DNA, confirming DNA as the genetic material

Hershey and Chase Experiment

Hershey and Chase worked with bacteria and viruses to confirm once and for all that DNA is the genetic material

Discovery of DNA Structure

Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA as a double helix

What are the nitrogen bases

Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)

What are purines?

A, G, that are made up of two ring structure of carbon - nitrogen base

What are Pyrimidines?

C,T that are made up of single ring structure of carbon - nitrogen base

what is the structure of protein determined by?

The Sequences of amino acids