3C - Feminist Theology and the Changing Role of Men and Women

What is feminist theology?

⇨ The examination of religious history and religious communities which takes seriously the exp. of women
⇨ Argues that religion has played a part in this historical and continuing oppression of women

Give an introduction to Rosemary Radford Ruether's contribution to feminist theology.

⇨ When 'she' is used to refer to God, there is a negative/hostile reaction amongst Christians. If God = beyond gender, why is there this reaction?
⇨ Biblical/theological traditions have reflected the view that men = more authentically human than women (androcentrism)
⇨ Adam + Eve = has been interpreted to suggest that sin entered world through Eve
⇨ In Bible, women = subject to men: OT - Gen. 3:16; NT - Ephesians 5:24
⇨ View that as a male God created us and a male God saved us, then men are closer to God = sin of idolatry

What does androcentrism mean?

⇨ The practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing a masculine point of view at the centre of one's world view, culture, and history, thereby culturally marginalising femininity.

What was Aristotle's view of women?

⇨ They are "misbegotten males" - naturally servile people ruled by those dedicated to reason (men)
⇨ Augustine adopted this view

What was Aquinas' view of women?

⇨ Believed that a male-female hierarchy was part of the natural order

According to Rosemary Radford Ruether, what is a male, and what is a female?

⇨ Only real diff. = reproductive roles
⇨ Men + women can manifest any no. of traits ∴ our nature = androgynous (similar to Jung's Anima/Animus archetypes)
⇨ Notions of masculinity and femininity come from culture + socialisation, and are not part of our inner nature
⇨ Tendency for men to identify their ego with left-brain characteristics, and women with the right; but we have both a left and right side of our brain

What is Rosemary Radford Ruether's basic idea about Mary and Eve?

⇨ The church has given women only two female examples to follow

What is Rosemary Radford Ruether's view of Mary as a role model?

⇨ Passivity, gentleness, meekness, obedience
⇨ Extolled as a perpetual virgin: implication that for a woman to be truly spiritual, she must not be 'sexual', and even then, she cannot attain the rationalistic prowess of males

What is Rosemary Radford Ruether's view of Eve as a role model?

⇨ Temptress + bringer of sin
⇨ Suggests that persecution/murder of 'witches' stems from religious gender stereotyping
- Cites 15th Century Dominican manual: "Since women are feebler both in mind and body, it is not surprising that they should come under the spell of witchcraft."
⇨ As gender stereotyping has long been part of the church, women have been excluded from ordination
- Cites 1976 Vatican declaration against women's ordination: "there must be a physical resemblance between the priest and Christ" i.e. must possess male genitalia

Which movements does Rosemary Radford Ruether point to that have not followed the dominant tradition in the role accorded to women?

⇨ Montanism: believed in the continuing inspiration of the HS in prophecy given to men and women; women were given equal status in some Montanist c.chs
⇨ Some Gnostic writings viewed women as Apostles + describe nature of God as having both male + female properties
⇨ Quakers + some Baptist movements include women in leadership
⇨ Shakers promoted a view of God as androgynous ∵ men+women = created in image of God ∴ God must be both m+f
⇨ Both Montanism and Gnosticism = viewed as heretical by C.ch Fathers

Why does Rosemary Radford Ruether not believe that the movements she references are perfect?

⇨ Gnostics advocated an unworldly asceticism
⇨ Shakers = celibate
⇨ They all often had a negative view of sexual activity/marriage
⇨ None fought for women's rights outside gatherings
⇨ BUT, they are indications that not all Christians have seen sexism as a necessary part of Christianity

How does Rosemary Radford Ruether view the prophetic tradition as encompassing feminist theology?

⇨ While they did not fight against sexism, they manifested principles which extended to all forms of oppression
⇨ Prophets of Israel fought against oppression of the poor and those dispossessed by powerful individuals/groups, even when the oppression came from religious establishments

According to Rosemary Radford Ruether, how can Jesus be seen to be part of the prophetic tradition?

⇨ It is more accurate to see Jesus as part of this prophetic tradition than it is to view him as the imperialistic Davidic Messiah-King and SofG ∵ the Jesus movement had a counter-cultural character, like the prophets: he rejected the use of religion to est. oppressive hierarchy + stood up for poor/oppressed
⇨ Jesus named God as Abba (a familial and emotional term for a father), which could be him distancing himself from patriarchal views of God
⇨ Feminist theology must reclaim the view of Jesus in which 'maleness' is of no importance

What does Rosemary Radford Ruether say have been the three attempts in the 20th Century to liberate women from sexism?

⇨ Romanticism
⇨ Liberalism
⇨ Marxism

Rosemary Radford Ruether: explain Romanticism in relation to feminist theology.

⇨ Viewed emerging industrialism + violence of wars as stemming from male traits, and that social salvation would come through embracing female qualities: intuition, emotional sensitivity, moral purity
⇨ As women have been forbidden from entire pol. realms, less prone to sins of egoism + retain more purity/goodness
⇨ Weaknesses:
- Leaves women trapped in romantic notions of what a female should be (cultural definitions of femininity)
- Can elevate the role of women in the home as the only way to maintain purity

Rosemary Radford Ruether: explain Liberalism in relation to feminist theology.

⇨ Rejects trad. role models + attempts to fight for social reform
⇨ Encourages women to enter education + develop qualities needed to wield power in spheres dominated by men
⇨ Reform of c.ch structures = part of a larger fight for w in society
⇨ Weaknesses: - Does not critique function of power in said spheres
- Largely middle/upper class phenomenon
- Middle/upper class women, after winning freedom, may hire lower-class women, perpetuating classism

Rosemary Radford Ruether: explain Marxism in relation to feminist theology.

⇨ Men + women should be viewed as equally able to contribute to society
⇨ Women should be freed from patriarchy and enter fully into work
⇨ Weaknesses:
- Many women in communist countries are still expected to do more work in the home than men (i.e. communism has not decreased patriarchal expectations)
- Women = viewed as subservient to their productivity on behalf of the communist state rather than valued for themselves

According to Rosemary Radford Ruether, what does a liberating church look like?

⇨ Many women will have to find support outside of the c.ch in female 'base communities', since patriarchy + sexism continues in c.ch
• Goals:
- c.ch as a community, manifesting prophetic-liberation
- free of patriarchy
- changes to the language used for God
- committed to fighting female oppression
⇨ It questions clericalism, noting that a powerful clergy that sees the laity as passive = another form of patriarchy, regardless of whether there are female priests

According to Mary Daly, what is the goal of human life?

⇨ For all people to be free to engage in a journey of growth
⇨ The opposite has been the case for women as they have been oppressed + trapped

What are two basic views held by Daly?

⇨ Society has created a sexual caste system with females below males
⇨ Biology has become a woman's destiny, reducing them to objects of men's desires

How does Daly explain that God is not a noun?

⇨ Women are treated as objects - as nouns
⇨ A static view of God (as a noun) has helped turn w into objects as it is reinforced w patriarchal images of God e.g. a white-bearded man in the sky
⇨ There are three versions of this noun-God - God as...:
i) a stop-gap (explanation of the unknown)
ii) otherworldliness (gives rewards/punishments after death)
iii) a judge of sin (est. roles for men/w + insists on these rules)
- None do anything to inspire creativity, dynamism, and growth
⇨ Jesus = also a noun; women can never hope to be as spiritual as men ∵ they are the wrong gender

How does Daly explain that God is a verb?

⇨ We must see God as a verb, a process of becoming with the universe as the force that helps us to become the people we are meant to be
⇨ Simply changing from male to female language will not address the root issue but simply perpetuates God as a female noun
⇨ When we think of God as a transforming power, we see that:
- OS is not disobedience, but turning women into objects forbidden to develop outside of their biological destiny.
- Salvation ≠ passive acceptance of doctrine or worship of a God-man, but participating in being and becoming.
- Worshipping the God of patriarchy = idolatry. Christians commit 'Christolatry' and 'Bibliolatry' when they insist that Bible forms of patriarchy = final truth
- To believe in the power of God = to believe in being/becoming.

According to Daly, what is the 'Unholy Trinity'?

⇨ Rape, genocide, war
⇨ Treating women as objects = at the heart of all human violence
⇨ Assigning women the values of passivity + gentleness = strategy to ensure that women do not interrupt the Unholy Trinity; women with 'feminine' qualities are rarely permitted into leadership positions ∵ these are the values that most influence society

Explain Daly's view of rape.

⇨ A patriarchal society has a vested interest in rape continuing since the fact of rape reinforces the need for males to protect all females. Is this why the police often disbelieve women who report rape?
⇨ Deuteronomy 22:28-9 - If a man rapes a non-betrothed virgin and is caught, he pays her family "fifty shekels of silver" and then she becomes his property

Give a genocidal command in the Old Testament that Daly points to.

⇨ Numbers 31:17-18 - "kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman who has known a man by sleeping with him."

What is Daly's view of war?

⇨ It promotes certain values associated with manliness

Why does Daly believe there is a need for sisterhood?

⇨ The c.ch = too bound to the patriarchy to ever become a place where women can find the transformation they seek.
⇨ She calls herself a 'post-Christian' + calls upon w to be 'antichurch' and leave this patriarchal structure by joining a sisterhood.
⇨ Find relationships with other women to oppose the lovelessness of a sexually hierarchical society.
⇨ A sisterhood would have no hierarchy, no dogmas, will assist in bringing w out of patriarchal spaces and on to a path where they can develop into an androgynous form of living.

Give the support for the ordination of women.

⇨ The New Testament considers all Christians to be ministers
⇨Hist. scholars note that there were many women in leadership positions in early c.ch e.g. Junia, who was "prominent among the apostles (Romans 16:7)
⇨ Other women considered to be Apostles = Mary Magdalene, Samaritan woman, Thecla, Nino
⇨ Possible references to female deacons (1 Timothy 3:11)
⇨ Possible references to prophetesses (Acts 21:9)
Jesus did not restrict his message/teaching to men
⇨ 1992: CofE voted to ordain women (by a narrow margin)
⇨1994: nearly 1500 w = ordained in CofE
⇨ Acts 18:26 - "He began to speak boldly in the synagogue, but when Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him and explained to him the way of God more accurately."
⇨ First CofE female bishop = Libby Lane, 2015

Give the opposition to the ordination of women.

⇨ Many early Christians altered Junia to Junias, assuming it was a mistranslation of Paul's words
⇨ All 12 Apostles = male
God chose to incarnate 'himself' in male form
1 Timothy 2:12 - "I do not permit a woman to teach or to exercise authority over a man; rather, she is to remain quiet."
⇨ Ordaining women would destroy the unity and Catholicity of the c.ch, which has only ordained men for centuries
⇨ 1993: CofE voted to allow individual congregations to opt out of accepting woman priests
⇨ 1994: 470+ male clergy protested against the women being ordained by leaving c.ch

What are the current issues with the ordination of women?

⇨ Most c.chs today still do not ordain w
⇨ 2014: Pope Francis affirmed the tradition, but has indicated a willingness to study the issue of women becoming deacons (lead services, conduct baptisms, but not celebrate Mass)
⇨ Only since late 1960s have women been ordained as deacons/priests in parts of Anglican c.ch; late 1990s, ordained as bishops
⇨ Issues impacting freedom of w to be equal to m counterparts:
- The proportion of unpaid women clergy has inc in c.ch bodies that ordain women
- Ordained women have to fight for maternity rights in some denominations
- Many congregations = reluctant to accept a female minister
- Difficult to access role of Bishop, citing lack of exp.

What does Rosemary Radford Ruether recognise as the four themes in the prophetic-liberating traditions?

i) God's vindication + defence of the oppressed
ii) A critique of dominant systems of power + their power holders
iii) A vision of a new age where injustice ends under the reign of G
iv) A critique of the religious ideology maintaining injustice