Untitled Flashcards Set

Sample

A subset of individuals from a larger population used to make inferences about the whole.

Sampling Frame

A list or database from which a sample is drawn (e.g., a list of registered voters).

Element

The individual unit of analysis in a sample (e.g., a person, a household, a school).

Sampling Error

The difference between sample results and the true population values due to chance.

Sampling Unit

The entity selected at each stage of sampling (e.g., individuals, groups, organizations).

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

Sample Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a sample apply to the larger population.

Cross-Population Generalizability (External Validity)

The extent to which findings apply across different populations or settings.

Simple Random Sampling

Every element has an equal chance of being selected.

Systematic Random Sampling

Selecting every kth element from a list (e.g., every 10th person).

Stratified Random Sampling

Dividing the population into strata and randomly sampling within each stratum.

Cluster Sampling

Groups (clusters) are randomly selected, then individuals within them are sampled.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting individuals based on ease of access.

Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling

Selecting individuals who fit a specific criterion.

Snowball Sampling

Participants recruit others (useful for hard-to-reach populations).

Quota Sampling

Ensuring the sample meets a predetermined demographic quota.

Empirical Association

A relationship exists between variables.

Temporal Order

The cause must precede the effect.

Non-Spuriousness

No alternative explanations (confounding variables) exist.

Independent Variables

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment (the cause).

Dependent Variables

The variable that is measured in an experiment (the effect).

Pretest & Posttest Measures

Measurements taken before and after a treatment.

Random Assignment

Participants randomly assigned to groups.

Experimental Groups

Groups that receive the treatment in an experiment.

Control Groups

Groups that do not receive the treatment in an experiment.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study accurately shows a causal relationship.

Selection Bias

Non-random groups leading to biased results.

History Effects

Outside events affecting study results.

Maturation

Natural changes over time affecting study results.

Testing Effects

Learning from previous tests affecting study outcomes.

Instrumentation

Changes in measurement methods affecting study results.

Regression to the Mean

Extreme scores shifting toward the average.

Trend Studies

Data collected at different times from different samples.

Panel Studies

The same individuals are followed over time.

Cohort Studies

A specific group is studied over time.

Uniform Crime Report (UCR)

Official police-reported crime data.

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

Self-reported victimization survey.

Leading Questions

Questions that suggest a particular response.

Double-Barreled Questions

Questions that ask two things at once.

Social Desirability Bias

Responding in a way that is socially acceptable.

Index

A combined measure that increases reliability.

Mail Surveys

Cost-effective surveys sent through the mail.

Telephone Surveys

Surveys conducted via phone calls.

Face-to-Face Interviews

In-person interviews for data collection.

Online Surveys

Surveys conducted over the internet.

Mixed-Mode Surveys

Surveys that combine different methods.