Ethical Theories and Moral Philosophy: Key Concepts and Principles

Conventional Morality

Refers to the prevailing moral beliefs and customs within a specific society or group.

Critical Morality

Refers to moral principles and standards that claim universal validity, used to elevate the conventions of any given society.

Virtue Ethics

Focused on the moral character of the agent and the cultivation of virtues.

Deontology

Emphasizes moral duties, rules, and intentions, independent of outcomes.

Consequentialism

Judges the morality of an action based on its consequences (e.g., utility).

Natural Law Theory

Proposes that law is based on inherent moral principles and natural rights.

Legal Positivism

Argues that law is a social construct, defined by rules and procedures.

Interpretivism

Presents a 'third way' where law is understood through interpretation.

Runaway Trolley Problem

A classic ethical dilemma presented as a practical test to differentiate the responses of the three main moral theories: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics.

Virtue

Defined as a 'golden mean' between two extremes (vices). It is an aspect of one's moral character, developed through habit and practice.

Teleological Thinking

Aristotle's approach is teleological, meaning it is concerned with the purpose of a human life to end (telos) of things.

The Polis

Living in a political community (polis) is considered essential for a virtuous life because it provides the context for humans to exercise their unique capacities for language and reason to deliberate about justice and the good life.

Purpose of Government

According to Aristotle, the purpose of politics and government is to cultivate the virtue of its citizens and enable them to live good lives.

Categories of Knowledge

Aristotle identifies three categories of knowledge. Ethics and politics belong to the category concerned with practical knowledge and human action.

Autonomous Action

To act autonomously is to act according to a law one gives oneself, free from external determinations or desires.

Moral Action

A moral action is one performed out of a sense of duty, not merely in accordance with duty.

The Categorical Imperative

This is the supreme principle of morality, a command of reason that applies universally and unconditionally.

The Formula of Humanity

Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means.

The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends

********* you were, through your maxims, a lawmaking member of a kingdom of ends.

Utilitarianism

A form of consequentialism that assesses the morality of actions based on their impact on overall happiness or well-being.

Bentham's Principle

The highest principle of morality is the 'greatest happiness principle,' which states that the right action is the one that maximizes pleasure and minimizes pain for the greatest number of people.

Objections to Bentham

Two main objections are raised against this principle: its failure to adequately protect individual rights and its tendency to reduce all values to a single scale of pleasure and pain.

Mill's Refinements

John Stuart Mill sought to refine Bentham's theory by distinguishing between 'higher' (intellectual, moral) and 'lower' (sensory) pleasures, arguing the former are qualitatively superior.

The Panopticon

A prison design conceived by Bentham, offered as a more humane and efficient institution for social control.

Hobbes' State of Nature

A hypothetical condition of humanity without government, which Hobbes describes as a 'war of all against all.'

Social Contract

Rational individuals agree to a social contract, surrendering some freedoms to a sovereign authority for security.

The Prisoner's Dilemma

Used to illustrate the rational choice to cooperate under a social contract.

Locke's Natural Law Theory

Posits that individuals possess inherent natural rights and that moral laws are discoverable through reason.

Doctrine of the Double Effect

A related concept addressing situations where an action has both a good and a harmful effect.

Liberal Egalitarianism

John Rawls' theory of 'Justice as Fairness' provides a framework for a just democratic society.

The Original Position

A hypothetical thought experiment where parties select principles of justice for their society.

The Veil of Ignorance

Within the original position, parties are placed behind a 'veil of ignorance,' ensuring chosen principles are not biased by self-interest.

Primary Social Goods

Things every rational person wants, including rights, liberties, opportunities, powers, income, and wealth.

The Two Principles of Justice

Rawls argues that parties in the original position would choose two principles to govern the basic structure.

First Principle (Equal Basic Liberties)

Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others.

Second Principle (Social and Economic Inequalities)

Inequalities are permissible only if they satisfy two conditions: a. They must be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.

The Difference Principle

They must be to the greatest expected benefit of the least-advantaged members of society.

Rejection of Moral Desert

Rawls argues that distributive justice is not a matter of rewarding moral desert, as natural talents and social starting positions are arbitrary from a moral point of view.

Libertarianism

Nozick's libertarianism offers a stark contrast to Rawls's egalitarianism, focusing on individual rights and freedom from coercion, not on achieving a particular distributive pattern.

Dworkin's Interpretivism

Ronald Dworkin's legal theory is presented as a 'third way' between Legal Positivism and Natural Law Theory, seeing a necessary connection between law and morality.

Moral Objectivism

Dworkin is a moral objectivist, believing there are right answers to moral questions.

Moral Relativism

Thomas Nagel's perspective challenges moral relativism, suggesting a belief in some objective moral truths.

Justice as Fairness

'Justice as fairness' is defined as the most appropriate conception of justice for a democratic society composed of free and equal citizens.

Veil of Ignorance

A feature of the original position thought experiment that deprives the parties choosing principles of justice of information about their future status and standing in society.

Theories of Morality

The three Theories of Morality are Virtue Ethics (proponent: Aristotle), Deontology (proponent: Kant), and Consequentialism.

Greatest Happiness Principle

Bentham's highest principle of morality.

Basic Structure

A society's 'basic structure' is the network of its major institutions, including political, legal, and economic systems, as well as civil society and the family.

Difference Principle Justification

The difference principle justifies social and economic inequalities only when they are arranged to provide the greatest expected benefit to the least advantaged members of society.

Formula of Humanity

One of the two versions of Kant's categorical imperative.

Formula of the Kingdom of Ends

One of the two versions of Kant's categorical imperative.

Mill's Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism that emphasizes liberty, utility in the long run, the harm principle, individual rights, and higher pleasures.

Bentham's Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism associated with Jeremy Bentham, focusing on the greatest happiness principle.

Aristotle

The philosopher associated with Virtue Ethics, exploring government purpose, the concept of polis, and teleological thinking.

Jeremy Bentham

A founder of Legal Positivism and Utilitarianism, associated with the greatest happiness principle and the concept of the Panopticon.

Categorical Imperative

A central concept in Kant's deontological ethics, with two specific versions identified.

Difference Principle

Part of Rawls' second principle of justice stating that social and economic inequalities are justified only if they benefit the least advantaged.

Ronald Dworkin

Proponent of Interpretivism, a theory of law distinct from Legal Positivism and Natural Law Theory.

Thomas Hobbes

Proponent of Social Contract Theory, known for his description of the 'state of nature' and the prisoners' dilemma.

Immanuel Kant

The philosopher associated with Deontology, focusing on autonomous action and the categorical imperative.

John Locke

A proponent of Social Contract Theory and Natural Law Theory.

John Stuart Mill

A key figure in Utilitarianism, emphasizing liberty and higher pleasures, distinguishing his views from Bentham's.

Robert Nozick

The philosopher associated with Libertarianism.

Original Position

A hypothetical choice situation in Rawls' theory used to determine principles of justice. It is a thought experiment that models an ideal perspective for free and equal persons.

Panopticon

An institutional concept proposed by Bentham, which the guide suggests evaluating for its humane qualities.

John Rawls

The philosopher associated with Liberal Egalitarianism and the theory of 'justice as fairness.'

Social Contract Theory

A theory concerning the origins of society and the legitimacy of government authority, associated with Hobbes and Locke.

Prisoners' Dilemma

A situation in which individuals must choose between cooperation and betrayal, with the rational choice leading to a suboptimal outcome for both.

State of Nature

Hobbes' concept describing a hypothetical condition before the establishment of society, characterized by chaos and conflict.

Natural Law Theory (Locke)

A theory that posits that moral principles dictate when actions are right or wrong, guiding human conduct.

Polis

A city-state in ancient Greece; according to Aristotle, it is essential for living a virtuous life.

Moral Action (Kant)

An action that is performed out of duty and in accordance with moral law.

Bentham's Highest Principle of Morality

The greatest happiness principle, which states that the best action is the one that maximizes happiness for the greatest number.

Objections to Bentham's Greatest Happiness Principle

Two main objections include the potential for sacrificing individual rights for the sake of the majority and the difficulty in measuring happiness.

Mill's Utilitarianism vs. Bentham's

Mill emphasizes higher pleasures and individual rights, while Bentham focuses on quantifiable happiness.

Problem of Utilitarianism

One problem is that it can justify morally questionable actions if they lead to a greater overall happiness.

Moral Contract Ideals

Two ideals that must be fulfilled for a moral contract: fairness and equality.

Distributive Justice (Rawls)

Rawls argues that distributive justice is not about rewarding moral desert but ensuring fairness and equality.

Economic Inequality (Libertarianism)

From a libertarian perspective, economic inequality is considered just as long as it arises from voluntary transactions.