Studied by 0 people
Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.
According to Armstrong, what is the mission set forth in the Qu'ran?
to create a just and decent society in which all members were treated with respect
Define the concept of AHADITH. Why is it important to Islamic belief?
About 100 years after Muhammad's death, as Islam continued to spread to new territories and gain converts, Muslim scholars began to compile a list of his great sayings.
Define the concept of SUNNAH. Why is it important to Islamic belief?
It taught Muslims to imitate the way Muhammad spoke, ate, loved washed, and worshipped so that in the smallest details of their daily experience, they reproduced his life on earth in hope that they would acquire his internal disposition of total surrender to God.
What is the QUR'AN? When was it first written?
For about 23 years of his life Muhammad claimed that he was a recipient of messages from God. These messages were collected in what is known as the Qur'an. It is the holy word of God, and its authority is absolute. The first official compilation of the Qur'an was made in 650, about 20 years after his death.
Define the concept of JIHAD. Why is it important to Islamic belief?
Jihad means "struggle" and defines Muhammad's life. Muhammad literally sweated with the effort to bring peace to war-torn Arabia, and his life was a tireless campaign against greed, injustice, and arrogance. He realized Arabia was at a turning point and the old way of thinking would no longer suffice so he wore himself out in an effort to evolve a new solution. It DOES NOT mean "holy war."
Define the concept of JAHILIYYAH. Why is it important to Islamic belief?
Jahiliyyah was the prevailing spirit at the time, and Muslims usually understand it to mean "Time of Ignorance," or the pre-Islamic period in Arabia. They use it not to refer to historical era, but to a state of mind that caused violence and terror in Arabia.
What does Muhammad's allegations that he was initially haunted by one of the JINNI tell us about the religious culture of Arabia at the turn of the seventh century?
Arabia was infested with violence and people's jinni's would appear and thrown them to the ground and force religious verses from their mouths.
Before his public ministry, what was Muhammad's career?
Muhammad was a respected merchant in Mecca.
Before Muhammad's vision, how did Arabs perceive Allah?
Allah had always been a distant figure in the past, who many believed was identical with the God worshipped by Jews and Christians.
Describe the early history of Mecca. What were the main features of BADAWAH ("nomadic life")? What practices were essential to the early badawah economy? Why does Armstrong believe Mecca was a holy site before it blossomed in to a city?
Mecca was very successful and the city was an international trading center and the merchants and financiers were becoming very rich. A few generations earlier they had been living a desperate life. The nomads herded sheep and goats, breed horses and camels, and lived in tight knit groups. Badawah was a relentless struggle because too many people were competing for limited resources. The ghazu (acquisition raid) was essential to the badawah economy. In times of scarcity, tribesman would regularly invade the territory of their neighbors in the hope of carrying off camels, cattle, or slaves, taking care to not kill anyone.
Muhammad was raised according to Bedouin culture. What were the values associated with Bedouin life?How does MURUWAH fit into Bedouin values? What is the role of the tribe in Bedouin culture?
The Bedouin were not very interested in conventional religion, and had no hope of an afterlife and little confidence in their gods. The tribe was the supreme value, and each member had to subordinate his personal needs and desires to the well being of the group, and fight to the death if need be. Muruwah meant courage, patience, and endurance; it consisted of a dedicated determination to avenge any wrong done to the group, to protect its weaker members, and defy its enemies. To preserve the honor of the tribe, each member had to be ready to leap to the defense of his kinsmen at a moment's notice and to obey his chief without question. (Karim - "generous hero")
How did ancestor reverence influence Bedouin actions? What was its relationship with the SHARI'AH ("the path of the waterhole").
Each tribe has its own special brand of muruwah, which the Arabs believed was inherited from the founding fathers of the tribe, and was passed on from one generation to another. They called this hasah, or "ancestral honor." The tribes viewed their forefathers as the supreme authority. The way of life (sunnah) that the ancients associated to their descendants was sacred. Any deviation from ancestral custom was a great evil. The Bedouin could not afford to experiment with anything new and it would be irresponsible to ignore the shari-ah. They learned to survive by following a certain set of rules and could not stray from that. The sunnah of your people was best and you could contemplate no other way of doing things.
What were the traditional potential paths to social and economic stability for Bedouin tribes?
Many Bedouin tried to escape from the steppes and build a more secure life, but these attempts were stopped due to the scarcity of water and arable land, and the frequency of drought. A tribe could not establish a viable settlement unless it had either accumulated a surplus of wealth or took over an oasis. The other alternative was to become an intermediary between two or more of the rich civilizations in the region.
Armstrong mentions a "transport revolution" (16) of the sixth century. What was this change, and how did this change influence Bedouin life?
The Bedouin had invented a saddle that enabled camels to carry far heavier loads than before. Now merchants from India, East Africa, Yemen, and Bahrain began to replace their donkey carts with camels, which could survive for days without water and could navigate the desert well. Now instead of avoiding Arabia, foreign merchants trading in luxury goods began to take their caravans by the more direct route to Byzantium and Syria through the steppes and employed the Bedouin to guard their merchandise, drive the camels, and guide them from one well to another.
What distinguished the QURAYSH, Muhammad's tribe, from the previous tribes who claimed control of Mecca? How did their economic policies lead to political stability? How was the Quraysh lifestyle different from the earlier Bedouin muruwah?
They were the first tribe to construct permanent buildings.They secured a monopoly of the north-south trade to service foreign caravans. They then started to send their own caravans to Syria and Yemen and established themselves as independent traders. Quraysh were forced to cultivate a strictly commercial ethos that took them away from many of the traditional values of muruwah. They had to become men of peace because the kind of warfare that was endemic in the steppes would make business impossible.
Armstrong writes that "trade and religion were...inextricably combined in Mecca" (19). What was the relationship between the HAJJ and the SUQ cycle?
The pilgrimage to Mecca was the climax of the suq cycle. The rituals of the hajj also gave the pilgrims a profound experience. As the converged on Mecca at the end of the suq cycle, there was a sense of excitement and achievement. One of the most famous rituals of the hajj was the tawaf. It was 7 circumambulations of the Kabah in a clockwise direction which symbolized the circular trade route around Arabia.
What was the "spiritual and moral crisis" (22) faced by the Quraysh, including Muhammad, at the end of the sixth century?
Families now vied with one another for wealth and prestige. Instead of sharing their wealth generously, people were hoarding their money and building private fortunes. The prosperous were naturally delighted with their new security, and believed it had saved them from the misery of badawah. The principles of muruwah seemed incompatible with market forces, and many felt thrust into a spiritual limbo.
Who was Khadijah bint al-Khuwayid? What was her influence on Muhammad's life?
She was Muhammad's distant relative who asked him when he was 25 to take a caravan into Syria for her. She was from the Asad clan. She was so impressed with his work that she proposed marriage to him. Because he lost his mother at a young age, he depended on her emotionally, and relied on her support and advice.
Armstrong writes that the religion of the Quraysh "was essentially pluralistic" (31). What does she mean by this? Who were the HANIFIYYAH?
They didn't think they needed to convert to Judaism or Christianity because they believed they were already members of the Abrahamic family. Arabs then corrupted the Abraham religion so they sought out hanifiyyah, or Abraham's pure religion, which was the religion before it broke out into many other sects.
In what ways were the teachings introduced to Muhammad in his first revelation "dramatically opposed" (34) to the long-standing principles of muruwah?
It identified the proud self-sufficiency of muruwah as a delusion, because humans are entirely dependent upon God. Then Allah insisted that he was not a distant deity, but wanted to instruct and guide his creatures. They must come close to him and bow before Allah like a "lowly slave" and that posture is repugnant to the haughty Quraysh.
How did assumptions about social class shape the way the Quraysh practiced their religious beliefs? In this religious system, who did the Quraysh consider "weak"?
Those with higher social class were less willing to accept the new revelations of Muhammad, and most of his followers were young men, women, slaves, freedmen, and those with weak tribal status. Weak didn't necessarily mean poverty. Weak was a tribal term that denoted inferior tribal status.
Consider the Qu'ran ("recitation") and its relationship to other sacred texts. What is a fundamental distinction between the Qu'ran and the New Testament? How is the Qu'ran organized? What was the purpose of the Qu'ran's emphasis on the individual?
The Qu'ran is bridging the gap between our frail, mortal world, and the divine. In the New Testament Jesus was presented as the Word, spoken by God to everyone, but in the Qu'ran Allah is using Muhammad as his mouthpiece speaking directly to the people. The order of the chapters (surah) is not important because they are arranged arbitrarily, in order from longest to shortest. Because the Qu'ran was pointed towards the individual it forced each listener to interrogate themself and answer the questions that the Qu'ran was asking.
Define the concept of TAQWA'. Why is it important to Islamic belief?
Taqwa is sometimes defined as "fear," but it simply means that people must become self-aware and conscious of what they are doing. They must continually be on their guard against selfishness, greed, and arrogance. Instead of frightening themselves with the fear of hell, they should meditate on the signs of God's generosity in the natural world and imitate his benevolence.
How did the revelations received by Muhammad shape his work towards social reform?
If they understood their dependence upon Allah at every moment of their lives, they would appreciate their own frailty, and their arrogance would be tempered by awe and wonder. They would lay aside their haughty self-reliance and their proudly cultivated refusal to bow to any creature, human or divine. Muhammad wanted everyone in Mecca to develop within themselves the humble thankfulness that should characterize the human condition.
Why was SALAT ("prayer") important to the "interior transformation" (52) that Muhammad considered was necessary for social reform? What other actions must Muslims perform on behalf of the UMMAH ("community")?
They would meet for salat (prayer), and this would be a daily reminder of their true condition. It interrupted their ordinary business and helmed them to remember that Allah was their first priority. Salat symbolized the surrender of their entire being to Allah, and taught their bodies at a level deeper than the rational to lay aside the self-regarding impulse to prance and preen arrogantly. Members of the Muslim community (ummah) also had to give a proportion of their income in alms to the poor.
After 615 CE, Muhammad expanded his public ministry. How was his message received by other members of his Hashim clan? What did the Hashim clan agree with? What elements of his teachings did the clan object to?
It was not received well. The elders remember Muhammad as a poor little boy and were embarrassed that he dare claim to be a prophet of Allah. They laughed at him and then stormed out of the house. Everyone agreed on Muhammad's social message that the wealthier should share with the poorer members of the tribe. They objected to the idea of reckoning and didn't believe that a dead body would one day come back to life.
What was the controversy surrounding the SHAYTAN ("tempter") verses, especially in their relation to the GHARANIQ? What principle was established in this controversy's wake? Who became the most out-spoken critic of Muhammad?
Muhammad knew how devoted the Quraysh were to the goddesses and Muhammad decided to incorporate the gharaniq into his religion to get them to look more fondly upon it. The words he said were those put in his mouth by the shaytan and were not words from Allah. Now an important principle was established saying that God could alter his scriptures at the time that were being revealed to a particular prophet.
How did Muhammad's call for social reform and monotheistic belief make him an enemy of the Quraysh? What were the political and economic repercussions of his ministry?
The Quraysh had no problem with monotheistic religions, Muhammad's religion was trying to change the social order, and Muhammad also called the Haram, on which the Meccan economy depended, was worthless. They then called on Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib to disown Muhammad. Without a protector Muhammad would be disowned from everyone and his religion would fail. Luckily, for Muhammad his uncle stood by him.
Why does Armstrong believe the approximate translation of KAFIR with "non-believers" is misleading? Who were the KAFIRUN? In contrast, how should Muslim behave, described as HILM?
She says it is misleading because Muhammad had no problems with the beliefs of others, but simply the fact that they didn't translate their beliefs into action. The Kafirun refers to anyone who ungratefully and aggressively rejects Allah and refuses to acknowledge his dependence on the Creator. According to Hilm, Muslims should control their anger and remain calm in the most difficult circumstances instead of exploding with rage; they were slow to retaliate; and did not hit back when they suffered injury, they left revenge to Allah. Muslims must always behave with consummate gentleness and courtesy.
What prompted Muhammad's "year of sadness" in 619CE?
Muhammad's first wife, Khadijah, died in 619. She was Muhammad's closest companion.
According to Armstrong, what proved to me "the greatest personal mystical experience" (81) of Muhammad's life? What does the 'ISRA ("night journey") represent in Islamic faith?
Muhammad had a vision of signs and symbols of God and he did but also did not see the divine essence. Isra is most simply "a night journey," but it most famously represents Muhammad's journey to Jerusalem, part of his vision. It represents a self-surrender that was also a return to the source of being and outlined the path that all humans must take, away from their preconceptions, their prejudices, and the limitations of egotism.
Describe the situation in Yathrib (also known by a variation on its Aramaic name, Medina). What was the Pledge of 'Aqaba? Ultimately, what allowed for the successful preaching of Muhammad's message in Yathrib, in contrast to Mecca?
Yathrib was not like Mecca. It had many different tribal groups, and only a few engaged in trade. Many were farmers and made their own living. Unlike the Quraysh they were not wholly depended on commerce. Since they had so many tribes they were engulfed in tribal wars. The Pledge of 'Aqaba was when 6 converts from Yathrib returned to Mecca and promised to worship Allah alone, refrain from stealing, lying, and infanticide, and pledged to obey Muhammad's directives concerning social justice. In return, Muhammad promised them paradise. In Mecca, Muhammad's teaching was stalled because the Quraysh could not believe that such an ordinary person could become the messenger of Allah, but conditions in Yathrib were different. Muhammad was not a normal person who could be seen in public, he was mysterious figure whose coming was eagerly appreciated. In Mecca, Muhammad's teaching was threatening to the Haram, which was crucial to their economy, but that was not the same in Yathrib.
How does Armstrong describe the HIJRAH ("migration")? When did it occur? What were the risks involved in undertaking the hijrah? Was the hijrah voluntary, or coerced by the Quraysh?
The Hijrah took place in 622 and was a migration of Muslims from Mecca to Yathrib. Muhammad recommended that Muslims leave Mecca, but he did not command it and in the end about 70 people left. They decided to meet outside the walls and make the journey in small groups. The risks were leaving when the Quraysh were strongly against leaving. In the end, the Quraysh didn't make a very strong effort to detain them and prevent them from leaving, but some women and children were prevented from leaving. The Muslims were very careful to not draw attention to their flight though. They Quraysh then set out to kill Muhammad.
