Psych 2e Chapters 1-8

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381 Terms

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Three Basic Functions of Memory

Encoding (input of information), Storage (retention of information), and Retrieval (getting the information out).

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Atkinson–Shiffrin Model

A memory model with three stages: sensory memory (brief input), short-term memory (temporary storage), and long-term memory (permanent storage). Rehearsal is needed to move information from short-term to long-term memory.

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Automatic Processing

Encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words without conscious awareness.

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Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort, such as studying for a test or learning new concepts.

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Explicit Memory

Also known as declarative memory; memories we consciously try to remember and recall, such as facts and events.

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Implicit Memory

Memories that are not part of our consciousness and are formed through behaviors. Includes procedural memory, emotional conditioning, and priming.

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Procedural Memory

Type of implicit memory for performing skilled actions, such as brushing your teeth or riding a bike.

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Semantic Memory

Part of explicit memory involving general world knowledge and facts, like knowing what a dog is or who the president is.

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Episodic Memory

Part of explicit memory involving information about events we have personally experienced (episodes of our lives).

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Engram

The physical trace of memory in the brain; Lashley searched for it, concluding that memory is distributed rather than localized.

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Amygdala’s Role in Memory

Helps process emotional memories; especially important for fear-based memories. Enhances memory encoding when emotions are involved.

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Hippocampus’s Role in Memory

Involved in memory consolidation and spatial memory; critical for transferring new learning into long-term memory.

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Cerebellum’s Role in Memory

Plays a role in processing procedural memories, especially those involving motor skills.

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Prefrontal Cortex’s Role in Memory

Involved in working memory and retrieval; helps with planning and decision-making involving memories.

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Flashbulb Memory

Exceptionally clear recollection of important emotional events (e.g., 9/11).

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Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after trauma; memories prior to the event remain intact.

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Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall some or all memories formed before a trauma or injury.

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Encoding Failure

Occurs when information never enters long-term memory due to lack of attention or meaning.

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Transience

One of Schacter’s memory errors; describes how memories can fade over time if not used.

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Blocking

Also known as tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon; when you know you know something but can’t retrieve it.

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Misattribution

Memory error in which the source of a memory is confused (e.g., thinking you heard something from a friend but it was on TV).

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Suggestibility

The distortion of memory due to the influence of others or misleading information.

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Bias

How current beliefs or feelings distort memories of past events.

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Persistence

The continuous recurrence of unwanted memories (e.g., PTSD).

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Proactive Interference

Old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.

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Retroactive Interference

New information hinders the recall of older memories.

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Memory Construction

Forming new memories; includes the influence of expectations, knowledge, and experiences.

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Memory Reconstruction

Reactivation of memory traces during retrieval, often altered or influenced by new information.

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Self-Reference Effect

Tendency to better remember information that relates to oneself.

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Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids that help organize information (e.g., acronyms, rhymes, visual imagery).

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Chunking

The process of organizing information into manageable bits or chunks (e.g., phone numbers).

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Rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information to move it from short-term to long-term memory.

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Levels of Processing Theory

The depth of processing affects memory; deeper (semantic) processing leads to better retention than shallow (e.g., visual or phonetic) processing.

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Arousal Theory

Strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotions result in weaker memories.

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Relearning

Reacquiring knowledge that was previously learned but forgotten; often easier than original learning.

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Recognition

A memory task in which individuals identify previously learned information from a list of options (e.g., multiple choice).

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Recall

A memory task in which individuals retrieve previously learned information without cues (e.g., essay questions).

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Cognition

Thinking that encompasses perception, learning, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory

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Cognitive psychology

The study of how people think, including how thought, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving interact

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Concept

A category or grouping of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories that help organize information

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Prototype

The most typical instance of a concept, used as a reference point

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Natural concept

A concept people form naturally through their experiences

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Artificial concept

A concept defined by specific rules or features (e.g., geometric figures)

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Schema / Cognitive schema

Mental frameworks that organize clusters of related concepts and guide behaviors, including event schemata or scripts

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Cognitive script (Event schema)

A routine or script for performing typical events in a particular sequence

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Language

A communication system using words and systematic rules (lexicon + grammar)

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Lexicon

The vocabulary of a language

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Grammar

The set of rules that govern how words are organized to convey meaning

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Phoneme

The smallest distinct sound unit in a language

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Morpheme

The smallest unit of language that carries meaning

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Semantics

Rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

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Syntax

Rules for organizing words into sentences

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Overgeneralization

The application of grammar rules too broadly (e.g., “gooses” instead of “geese”) by children

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Language Acquisition

Language develops naturally in predictable stages: preverbal sounds → first words → two-word sentences → complex sentences

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Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis

Language influences thought patterns and worldview

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Problem-solving strategy

A plan of action for finding a solution to a problem

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Trial and error

Trying multiple possible solutions until one works

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Algorithm

A step-by-step set of instructions guaranteed to produce a correct solution

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Heuristic

A general decision-making or problem-solving framework or mental shortcut

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Working backwards

Starting with the end goal and working in reverse to find a solution

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Functional fixedness

A mental block caused by thinking of things only in terms of their typical function

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Mental set

Persisting in using the same method to solve a problem even when better options exist

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Anchoring bias

Relying heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions

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Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind

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Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for or interpret information that confirms one’s beliefs

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Convergent thinking

Narrowing down multiple possibilities to find a single, correct answer

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Divergent thinking

Generating many different solutions to a problem

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Creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas or solutions

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Analytical intelligence

Academic problem-solving ability

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Creative intelligence

Ability to generate new ideas and novel solutions

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Practical intelligence

Ability to solve real-world, everyday problems

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Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively

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Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence is comprised of several distinct modalities (e.g., musical, spatial)

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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Intelligence includes analytical, creative, and practical components

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Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and the ability to retrieve it

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Fluid intelligence

Ability to see complex relationships and solve novel problems

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IQ test

A standardized assessment designed to measure intelligence compared to the norming sample

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Binet–Simon

Origins of IQ testing

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Stanford-Binet

And Wechsler (WAIS-IV, WISC-V) are widely used adult and children’s tests

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Norming & Standardization

IQ tests must be administered to a representative sample to establish norms

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Average IQ

100 (mean of standardized tests)

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Genetic influences

Twin studies show strong heritability (~80% IQ correlation in identical twins reared apart)

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Environmental influences

Early stimulation and socioeconomic status can affect IQ; Range of Reaction theory suggests genetics set a potential range and environment influences the outcome

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Learning disability

Neurological disorders that impair reading, writing, or math, but do not reflect low intelligence

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Dyslexia

Difficulty reading

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Dysgraphia

Difficulty writing legibly

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Dyscalculia

Difficulty with math

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Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

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Associative learning

Learning by connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment; includes classical and operant conditioning.

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Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which a stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.

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Operant conditioning

A form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence.

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Observational learning

Learning that occurs by watching others and imitating their behavior.

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Reflex

An automatic, unlearned response to a stimulus.

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Instinct

A complex pattern of behavior that is innate and unlearned.

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Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.

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Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

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Unconditioned response (UR)

A natural, unlearned reaction to a stimulus.

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.