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Three Basic Functions of Memory
Encoding (input of information), Storage (retention of information), and Retrieval (getting the information out).
Atkinson–Shiffrin Model
A memory model with three stages: sensory memory (brief input), short-term memory (temporary storage), and long-term memory (permanent storage). Rehearsal is needed to move information from short-term to long-term memory.
Automatic Processing
Encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words without conscious awareness.
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort, such as studying for a test or learning new concepts.
Explicit Memory
Also known as declarative memory; memories we consciously try to remember and recall, such as facts and events.
Implicit Memory
Memories that are not part of our consciousness and are formed through behaviors. Includes procedural memory, emotional conditioning, and priming.
Procedural Memory
Type of implicit memory for performing skilled actions, such as brushing your teeth or riding a bike.
Semantic Memory
Part of explicit memory involving general world knowledge and facts, like knowing what a dog is or who the president is.
Episodic Memory
Part of explicit memory involving information about events we have personally experienced (episodes of our lives).
Engram
The physical trace of memory in the brain; Lashley searched for it, concluding that memory is distributed rather than localized.
Amygdala’s Role in Memory
Helps process emotional memories; especially important for fear-based memories. Enhances memory encoding when emotions are involved.
Hippocampus’s Role in Memory
Involved in memory consolidation and spatial memory; critical for transferring new learning into long-term memory.
Cerebellum’s Role in Memory
Plays a role in processing procedural memories, especially those involving motor skills.
Prefrontal Cortex’s Role in Memory
Involved in working memory and retrieval; helps with planning and decision-making involving memories.
Flashbulb Memory
Exceptionally clear recollection of important emotional events (e.g., 9/11).
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to form new long-term memories after trauma; memories prior to the event remain intact.
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to recall some or all memories formed before a trauma or injury.
Encoding Failure
Occurs when information never enters long-term memory due to lack of attention or meaning.
Transience
One of Schacter’s memory errors; describes how memories can fade over time if not used.
Blocking
Also known as tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon; when you know you know something but can’t retrieve it.
Misattribution
Memory error in which the source of a memory is confused (e.g., thinking you heard something from a friend but it was on TV).
Suggestibility
The distortion of memory due to the influence of others or misleading information.
Bias
How current beliefs or feelings distort memories of past events.
Persistence
The continuous recurrence of unwanted memories (e.g., PTSD).
Proactive Interference
Old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.
Retroactive Interference
New information hinders the recall of older memories.
Memory Construction
Forming new memories; includes the influence of expectations, knowledge, and experiences.
Memory Reconstruction
Reactivation of memory traces during retrieval, often altered or influenced by new information.
Self-Reference Effect
Tendency to better remember information that relates to oneself.
Mnemonic Devices
Memory aids that help organize information (e.g., acronyms, rhymes, visual imagery).
Chunking
The process of organizing information into manageable bits or chunks (e.g., phone numbers).
Rehearsal
The conscious repetition of information to move it from short-term to long-term memory.
Levels of Processing Theory
The depth of processing affects memory; deeper (semantic) processing leads to better retention than shallow (e.g., visual or phonetic) processing.
Arousal Theory
Strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotions result in weaker memories.
Relearning
Reacquiring knowledge that was previously learned but forgotten; often easier than original learning.
Recognition
A memory task in which individuals identify previously learned information from a list of options (e.g., multiple choice).
Recall
A memory task in which individuals retrieve previously learned information without cues (e.g., essay questions).
Cognition
Thinking that encompasses perception, learning, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory
Cognitive psychology
The study of how people think, including how thought, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving interact
Concept
A category or grouping of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories that help organize information
Prototype
The most typical instance of a concept, used as a reference point
Natural concept
A concept people form naturally through their experiences
Artificial concept
A concept defined by specific rules or features (e.g., geometric figures)
Schema / Cognitive schema
Mental frameworks that organize clusters of related concepts and guide behaviors, including event schemata or scripts
Cognitive script (Event schema)
A routine or script for performing typical events in a particular sequence
Language
A communication system using words and systematic rules (lexicon + grammar)
Lexicon
The vocabulary of a language
Grammar
The set of rules that govern how words are organized to convey meaning
Phoneme
The smallest distinct sound unit in a language
Morpheme
The smallest unit of language that carries meaning
Semantics
Rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences
Syntax
Rules for organizing words into sentences
Overgeneralization
The application of grammar rules too broadly (e.g., “gooses” instead of “geese”) by children
Language Acquisition
Language develops naturally in predictable stages: preverbal sounds → first words → two-word sentences → complex sentences
Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis
Language influences thought patterns and worldview
Problem-solving strategy
A plan of action for finding a solution to a problem
Trial and error
Trying multiple possible solutions until one works
Algorithm
A step-by-step set of instructions guaranteed to produce a correct solution
Heuristic
A general decision-making or problem-solving framework or mental shortcut
Working backwards
Starting with the end goal and working in reverse to find a solution
Functional fixedness
A mental block caused by thinking of things only in terms of their typical function
Mental set
Persisting in using the same method to solve a problem even when better options exist
Anchoring bias
Relying heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions
Availability heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind
Confirmation bias
Tendency to search for or interpret information that confirms one’s beliefs
Convergent thinking
Narrowing down multiple possibilities to find a single, correct answer
Divergent thinking
Generating many different solutions to a problem
Creativity
Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas or solutions
Analytical intelligence
Academic problem-solving ability
Creative intelligence
Ability to generate new ideas and novel solutions
Practical intelligence
Ability to solve real-world, everyday problems
Emotional intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence is comprised of several distinct modalities (e.g., musical, spatial)
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Intelligence includes analytical, creative, and practical components
Crystallized intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and the ability to retrieve it
Fluid intelligence
Ability to see complex relationships and solve novel problems
IQ test
A standardized assessment designed to measure intelligence compared to the norming sample
Binet–Simon
Origins of IQ testing
Stanford-Binet
And Wechsler (WAIS-IV, WISC-V) are widely used adult and children’s tests
Norming & Standardization
IQ tests must be administered to a representative sample to establish norms
Average IQ
100 (mean of standardized tests)
Genetic influences
Twin studies show strong heritability (~80% IQ correlation in identical twins reared apart)
Environmental influences
Early stimulation and socioeconomic status can affect IQ; Range of Reaction theory suggests genetics set a potential range and environment influences the outcome
Learning disability
Neurological disorders that impair reading, writing, or math, but do not reflect low intelligence
Dyslexia
Difficulty reading
Dysgraphia
Difficulty writing legibly
Dyscalculia
Difficulty with math
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.
Associative learning
Learning by connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment; includes classical and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which a stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence.
Observational learning
Learning that occurs by watching others and imitating their behavior.
Reflex
An automatic, unlearned response to a stimulus.
Instinct
A complex pattern of behavior that is innate and unlearned.
Neutral stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.
Unconditioned response (UR)
A natural, unlearned reaction to a stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.