AP Human Geo

urban area

City and its surrounding suburbs, dense settlement

metropolitan area

A major population center made up of a large city and the smaller suburbs and towns that surround it

site

A place's absolute location, as well as its physical characteristics, such as the landforms, climate, and resources

situation

Location of a place in relation to other places or its surrounding features

central business district (CBD)

The nucleus or "downtown" of a city, where retail stores, offices, and cultural activities are concentrated, mass transit systems converge, and land values and building densities are high

suburbanization

The shifting of population away from cities into surrounding suburbs

urban sprawl

The process of urban areas expanding outwards, usually in the form of suburbs, and developing over fertile agricultural land.

suburb

Less densely populated residential and commercial settlements surrounding a city

edge city

Distinct sizable nodal concentration of retail and office space that draws workers during the day, situated on the outer fringes of older metropolitan areas; usually localized by or near major highway intersections

boomburb

A suburb that has grown rapidly into a large and sprawling city with more than 100,000 residents

exurb

A typically fast-growing community outside of or on the edge of a metropolitan area where the residents and community are closely connected to the central city and suburbs

infill

Redevelopment that identifies and develops vacant parcels of land within previously built areas

zoning

The process of dividing a city or urban area into zones with which only certain land uses are permitted

gravity model

A model that predicts the interaction between two or more places; geographers derived the model from Newton's law of universal gravitation

rank-size rule

Explanation of size of cities within a country; 2nd 1/2, 3rd 1/3, 4th 1/4, 5th 1/5

primate city

The largest city in a country, which far exceeds (over 1/2) the next city in population size and importance

central place theory

A theory that explains the distribution of services, based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market areas for services; larger settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements and provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther.

threshold

The number of consumers needed to support a business; associated with central place theory

range

The distance that someone is willing to travel for a good or service; associated with central place theory

megacity

A city with a population of more than 10 million

metacity

A city with a population of more than 20 million

world city (or global city)

a city that wields political, cultural, and economic influence on a global scale

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

This model was devised in the 1920s to predict and explain the growth patterns of North American urban spaces. Its main principle is that cities can be viewed from above as a series of concentric rings. Key elements of the model are the central business district and the peak land value intersection. Based on Chicago

Harris-Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model

Developed in the 1950s, this model explains the changing growth pattern of urban spaces based on the assumption that growth occurred independently around several major foci (or focal nodes), many of which are far away from the central business district and only marginally connected to it. Based on Chicago

Hoyt Sector Model

A model developed in 1933 of the internal structure of a city in which social groups are arranged around a series of sectors or wedges radiating out from the CBD. Based on Chicago

Galactic City Model

Developed in the 1960s, this model depicts mini edge cities that are connected to another city by beltways or highways, economic activity has moved from the central business district toward loose coalitions of other urban areas and suburbs; also known as the peripheral model, based on Detroit created by Harris

infrastructure

The basic physical and organizational structures and facilities (e.g. buildings, roads, transportation, power supplies) needed for the function of settlements or economic enterprise.

Borchert's epochs

American cities have undergone five major epochs, or periods, of development shaped by the dominant forms of transportation and communication at the time. These include sail-wagon epoch (1790-1830), iron horse epoch (1830-1870), steel rail epoch (1870-1920), auto-air-amenity epoch (1920-1970), and satellite-electronic-jet propulsion and high-technology epoch (1970-present).

ecological footprint

Impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of land required to sustain their use of natural resources

mixed use

A single planned development designed to include multiple uses, such as residential, retail, educational, recreational, industrial, and office spaces

walkability

A measure of how safe, convenient, and efficient it is to walk in an urban environment

transportation oriented development

The creation of dense, walkable, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use communities centered around or located near a transit station

smart growth policies

Policy implemented to create sustainable communities by placing development in convenient locations and designing it to be more efficient and environmentally responsible

traditional zoning

Zoning that creates separate zones based on land-use type or economic function such as various categories of residential (low-, medium-, or high-density), commercial, or industrial

new urbanism

A school of thought that promotes designing growth to limit the amount of urban sprawl and preserve nature and usable farmland

slow-growth cities

City where planners have used smart-growth policies to decrease the rate at which the city grows outward

urban growth boundary

A boundary that separates urban land uses from rural land uses by limiting how far a city can expand

greenbelt

A ring of parkland, agricultural land, or other type of open space maintained around an urban area to limit sprawl

de facto segregation

Segregation that results from residential settlement patterns rather than from prejudicial laws

redlining

Practice by which a financial institution such as a bank refuses to offer home loans on the basis of a neighborhood's racial or ethnic makeup (page

blockbusting

A practice by real estate agents who would stir up concern that Black families would soon move into a neighborhood; the agents would convince White property owners to sell their houses at below-market prices

inclusionary zoning laws

Law that creates affordable housing by offering incentives for developers to set aside a minimum percentage of new housing construction to be allocated for low-income renters or buyers

gentrification

The renovations and improvements of neighborhoods, conforming to middle-class preferences

urban renewal

Program in which cities identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire the properties from private members, relocate the residents and businesses, clear the site, build new roads and utilities, and turn the land over to private developers.

filtering

The process of neighborhood change in which housing vacated by more affluent groups passes down the income scale to lower-income groups

institutionalized racism

Defined as the policies, rules, practices, etc. that have become a usual part of the way an organization or society works, and that result in and support a continued unfair advantage to some people and unfair or harmful treatment of others based on race.

disamenity zones

A high-poverty urban area in a disadvantaged location containing steep slopes, flood-prone ground, rail lines, landfills, or industry

squatter settlement

An informal housing area beset with overcrowding and poverty that features temporary homes often made of wood scraps or metal sheeting

land tenure

The legal rights, as defined by a society, associated with owning land

eminent domain

a government's right to take over privately owned property for public use or interest

industry

Any economic activity using machinery on a large scale to process raw materials into products

raw materals

Any metals, wood or other plant products, animal products, or other substances that are used to make intermediate or finished goods (input)

industrialization

The process in which the interaction of social and economic factors causes the development of industries on a wide scale

industral revolution

The radical change in manufacturing methods that began in Great Britain in the mid-18th century and was marked by the shift from small-scale, hand-crafted, muscle-powered production to power-driven mass production

cottage industries

Preindustrial form of manufacture in which members of families spread out through rural areas worked in their homes to make goods

primary sector

Economic sector associated with removing or harvesting products from the earth; includes agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining or quarrying, and extracting liquids or gas

secondary sector

Economic sector associated with the production of goods from raw materials; includes manufacturing, processing, and construction

tertiary sector

Economic sector that includes a host of activities that involve the transport, storage, marketing, and selling of goods or services; also called the service sector

quaternary sector

Economic sector that is a subset of tertiary sector activities that require workers to process and handle information and environmental technology

quinary sector

Economic sector that is a subset of the quaternary sector; involves the very top leaders in government, science, universities, nonprofits, health care, culture, and media

postindustrial

An economic pattern marked by predominant tertiary sector employment—with a good share of quaternary and quinary jobs

Gross Domestic Income (GNI)

The total value of the goods and services produced by a country's citizens and companies both domestically and internationally, includes remittance and foreign aid

dual economies

Economies with two distinct distributions of economic activity across the economic sectors

least cost theory

Industrial location theory proposed by Alfred Weber suggesting that businesses locate their facilities in a particular place because that location minimizes the costs of production

agglomeration

The tendency of enterprises in the same industry to cluster in the same area

break-of-bulk point

Location where it is more economical to break raw materials into smaller units before shipping them further

bulk reducing industries

Industry in which the raw materials cost more to transport than the finished goods

bulk gaining industries

Industry in which the finished goods cost more to transport than the raw materials

industral parks

A collection of manufacturing facilities in a particular area that is typically found in suburbs and is located close to highways to facilitate movement of raw materials and finished products

multinational corporation

a corporation that owns businesses in two or more countries, is typically headquartered in a core country

just-in-time delivery

A system in which goods are delivered as needed so that companies keep in inventory only what is needed for near-term production

Fordism

A highly organized and specialized system for industrial production that focuses on efficiency and productivity in mass production (assembly line); named after Henry Ford

Post-Fordism production

System focused on small-scale batch production for a specialized market and flexibility that allows for a quick response to changes in the market

offshore outsourcing

The condition of one or more aspects of production (manufacturing or service)are moved to an organization in another country

international division of labor

A pattern of production and labor in which different countries are engaged in distinct aspects of production

multiplier effect

The economic effect in which a change creates a larger change, such as when a new manufacturing plant grows the economy by giving rise to more related jobs and services

special economic zone (SEZ)

An area within a country that offers more favorable economic regulations (such as tax benefits or no tariffs) to attract foreign businesses

export processing zone (EPZ)

An area within a country that is subject to more favorable regulations (usually including the elimination of tariffs) to encourage foreign investment and the manufacturing of goods for export

free trade zones (FTZ)

Designated areas where foreign companies can warehouse goods without paying taxes or customs duties until they move the goods into the marketplace

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total value of the goods and services produced by a country's citizens and companies within the country in a year

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita

The total value of goods and services globally produced by a country in a year divided by the country's population

formal sector

Businesses, enterprises, and other economic activities that have government supervision, monitoring, and protection, and are also taxed

informal sector

Any part of a country's economy that is outside of government monitoring or regulation; sometimes called the informal economy

Human Development Index (HDI)

A measure that determines the overall development of a country by incorporating three key dimensions of human development: life expectancy at birth, access to education measured in expected and mean years of schooling, and standard of living measured by GNI per capita

microloans

A very small short-term loan with low interest intended to help people in developing economies (Grameen Bank)

Stages of Economic Growth Model

A theory developed by Walt Rostow in which five stages of economic organization are recognized: traditional society, preconditions for takeoff, takeoff, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption.

World Systems Theory

Theory developed by Immanuel Wallerstein that explains the emergence of a core, periphery, and semi periphery in terms of economic and political connections first established at the beginning of exploration in the late 15th century and maintained through increased economic access up until the present.

dependency theory

A theory that describes the development challenges and limitations faced by poorer countries and the political and economic relationships poorer countries have with richer countries

commodity dependence

An aspect of dependency theory that occurs when more than 60 percent of a country's exports and economic health are tied to one or two resources

Sustainable Development Goals

Seventeen goals adopted by the U.N. in 2015 to reduce disparities between developed and developing countries by 2030.

ecotourism

A form of tourism based on the enjoyment of natural areas that minimizes the impact to the environment

comparative advantage

The relative cost advantage a country or organization has to produce certain goods or services for trad

complementarity benefit

The mutual trade relationship that exists between two places based on the supply of raw materials and the demand for finished products or services

horizonal integration

A form of corporate organization in which several branches of a company or several commonly owned companies work together to sell their products in different markets

vertical integration

The combining of a company's ownership of and control over more than one level of the production process of goods.

World Bank

A specialized agency of the United Nations that makes loans to countries for economic development, trade promotion, and debt consolidation.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

an international organization that acts as a lender of last resort, providing loans to troubled nations, and also works to promote trade through financial cooperation

Neoliberalism

a modified form of liberalism tending to favor free-market capitalism. (Very Rowtow!)

growth pole

an urban center with certain attributes, attracts an agglomeration from the same industry. (Silicon Valley)

de-industrialization

a process of social and economic change caused by the removal or reduction of industrial capacity or activity in a country or region, especially of heavy industry or manufacturing industry.